Summer camps were organized first as a manifestation of social efforts to ensure proper, mental and physical development of children from urban areas, by letting them spend some time away from the polluted and overcrowded cities. The first city to organize summer camps for its children was Copenhagen (1853), and it was soon followed by Hamburg (1876), Zurich (1876) and Frankfurt am Main (1878). In Poznań, in the area of Poland under Prussian occupation, both German and Polish communities were sending their children to summer camps since 1882.

Summer camps were organized first as a manifestation of social efforts to ensure proper, mental and physical development of children from urban areas, by letting them spend some time away from polluted and overcrowded cities. The Geneva Hygienic Convention in 1883 recognized that organizing summer camps for children “makes it possible for poor and sickly children to get away from stuffy tenements during summer vacations, and spend some time under professional care of counselors in the countryside or at the seaside. They should receive nutritious meals and be encouraged to spend as much time as possible outdoors. The weakly children would then attain fresh vigor and become immune to the negative influence of city life” [7].

Summer camps were initiated in Denmark. In 1853 the city of Copenhagen sent its sickly and anemic children to host families in the country. Four years later the number of Danish summer campers reached 700, and in 1906 17,000, i.e. 38% of children from Copenhagen elementary schools. The Copenhagen example was then followed by Hamburg. In 1876 it organized family camps for its children in the countryside. In the same year Reverend Walter Bion from Zurich founded the so-called “geschlossene (closed) summer camps” in which campers were divided into groups, each under close supervision of counselors. Bion is commonly regarded as the actual founder of summer camps in general (F. Büsing, E. Piasecki, M. Demel, et al.).

In 1878 Dr. Varrentrapp started summer camps for children from Frankfurt am Main. The idea was gaining increasing popularity, and every year more and more children participated in summer camps. In Switzerland, in 1899, 3,300 children participated in summer camps, and in 1909 – 8,186. In 1906 Hamburg sent 2510 children to summer camps, and the overall number of summer campers in Germany amounted to 17,025 [3, 10, 16].

In 1881, the Verein für Ferienkolonien (Association of Summer Camps) was founded in Poznań. The Association Board comprised seven members (1889): the Chairman – Mayor Caesar Kalkowski; Treasurer – Herman Elkeles, merchant; Secretary – Hermann Franke, school director; and Members – journalist Carl Fontane, doctor Josef Landsberger, merchant H. Meyer, sanitary inspector Franz Toporski and Prussian privy councilor Dr. V. Wittenburg.

The camps in 1882 were organized by the Verein für Ferienkolonien between July 5 and 13; the participants put on weight from 0.5 to 4.5kg. In 1887, 157 children were sent to summer camps, and 241 one year later. In 1889, Dr. Josef Landsberger qualified 230 children for summer camps from 500 previously selected by school headmasters; out of which 224 took part.

The summer camp fund consisted of membership fees from the Association members, state subsidies and voluntary contributions from various individuals and institutions. In 1889, for instance, 400 marks were received from the Empress Fredericka’s foundation; 600 marks from Governor of the Poznań Province, Count V. Zedlitz Truzschlerthe and Prussian Minister of Education, Gustaw V. Gossler; 1000 marks from the Prussian Minister of Internal Affairs; 1500 marks and clothing articles from the Hilfs-Komitee der Uberschwemmten in der Stadt Posen (Poznań Aid Committee for Flood Victims); 300 marks from the Verein junger Kauflente (Young Merchants’ Society); and Vaterländichen Frauenverein (Women of Fatherland Association) gave underwear and other clothing items. Private contributors included Dr. Sigismund Lewński, attorney-at-law (100 marks), Fritz Orgler, councilor (70 marks), Moritz Jaffe, assessor (50 marks) and many others.

Out of 224 campers 151 were Evangelicals (Germans), 40 Roman Catholics (Poles), and 33 Jews. There were 94 boys and 130 girls. 150 children, in groups of 20-25, remained under the supervision of physical education teachers in seven localities of the Poznań Province: Rakoniewice, Krosno near Mosina, Żerkowo, Kórnik, Netków, Wielka Grobla near Zbąszyń, and Edward’s Isle in Zaniemyśl. Camp activities included outdoor trips, swimming in ponds and lakes, team games and housework. Under the supervision of experienced counselors, the camps turned extremely beneficial for the children’s health and minds. The kids developed character, sense of order, and made lots of friendships. The sickly children also put on weight: from 5.3 pounds in Netków to 3.5 pounds in Kórnik.

Day summer play centers were also organized. One of them was run by Hilda Pohler for 15 children. At 9 a.m. the children would gather at the Hofmann’s Sanitätsmalkere (Milk Distribution Sanitary Center), drink fresh milk and eat bread and butter. Afterwards they went to a meadow where they would spend their time until 11 a.m. At 6 p.m. they were given a glass of curds and a roll, and went home. Between 11 a.m. and 6 p.m. the participants were playing and swimming. Three boys, after examination by Dr. Hermann Elkeles, were sent by the sanitary counselor Dr. Josef Pauly to free cold baths in the Warta River in the Krug Bathing Center. 12 children attended saline baths in the municipal hospital four times a week under the supervision of the sanitary inspector Franz Toporski. The weakly children received this kind of treatment for 6 weeks. The bathing saline was received by the Verein für Ferienkolonien from the Königlichen Salzamt (the Royal Salt Office) in Inowrocław for the affordable price of 10 marks per cubic meter.

Due to the saline baths longer trips were not organized, so the campers engaged in many activities under counselors’ supervision. They usually put on weight 2.8 pounds on the average. It is not certain whether those were indeed the very first camps organized by the Verein für Ferienkolonien in Poznań.

In 1889 therapeutic camps were organized in two three-week sessions for 17 children in the Prinz und Prinzess Wilhelm-Kinderheilstätte Center in Inowrocław. Also 3 Jewish children attended the center thanks to a donation by Citizen Jocobsohn, and they took 11 saline baths. While in Inowrocław, the children improved their health and put on weight about 4 pounds. Two Jewish children were also sent by Dr. Josef Landsberger to saline therapy in the Jewish Spa Hospital (Kurhospital) in Kołobrzeg.

Also, in the same year 37 children spent their summer holidays with 16 host families in the country [1, 10].

The average daily expenses per child were: 1.35 marks in full-time summer camps, 0.35 marks in day summer play centers, 0.89 marks in the Prinz und Prinzess in Wilhelm-Kinderheilstätte Center in Inowrocław, 1.13 marks for saline therapy in Inowrocław, 0.24 marks for staying with a host family. The overall cost of organization of summer camps in 1889 amounted to 5943.45 marks.

Prior to their departure for camps children gathered in the City Sports Hall where the Board of the Verein für Ferienkolonien together with the parents, guardians, and the Ladies’ Committee, bid them farewell. The boys’ choir from the 5^th Municipal Elementary School conducted by teacher Paul Kowald sang the song “Wenn Gott will rechte Gunst erweisen, den schicht er in die Welt” (These who are shown God’s grace are sent into the wide world) by F. Mendelssohn. In the same venue the summer camps were officially concluded. In 1889, during the closing ceremony, the children’s choir performed a rousing hymn “Herr Deine Güte reicht so weit die Wolken gehen” (Lord, your goodness reaches where the clouds float).

In the following years summer camps followed a similar pattern of organization. In 1892 the number of children participating in summer camps reached 202, in 1893 – 197, and in 1894 – 143. Apart from Kołobrzeg, seaside camps were also organized in Sopot [1, 4, 9]. In ten years the Verein für Ferienkolonien sent 1531 children to summer camps, for the overall sum of 46107.25 marks [18].

The Verein für Ferienkolonien ran its activities for a few years after Poland regained independence in 1918, receiving funds from the Poznań Municipal Council: 1000 marks in 1920 and 1921 [11].

The Polish community perceived the summer camps organized by Germans as a Germanization factor directed against Polish children. First attempts to organize Polish summer camps were made in 1882 by Julian Bukowiecki and Polish teacher Józef Kurzaj. Due to lack of funds only a few children were sent to some wealthy Polish host families in the country. Between 1883 and 1896 Polish children were sent to host families by editor-in-chief of “Dziennik Poznański” (Poznań Daily) Franciszek Dobrowolski [5, 19]. After his death in 1896, summer camps for the poor and sick Polish children from Poznań were organized by the Stella Society - known for its organization of numerous poetry and patriotic evenings. Stella found financial support among Polish aristocrats and landed gentry as well as industrialists, merchants, craftsmen and farmers. In 1900 the summer camps section of the Society became the Independent Association of Summer Camps and Sanitary Stations [5]. The motto of the founders of Polish summer camps were the words of Count Jan Żółtowski from Czacz: “Not to maintain the number of the unfit for work, but to reduce it” [6].

The Stella Board comprised the Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer. All the board members worked for free and covered their own numerous travel expenses. The first Chairman became Albim Andruszewski, followed by poet, translator and political activist Count Wawrzyniec Benzelstiern-Engeström in the years 1902-1910. Then, until 1920 the Board was chaired by merchant and social activist Władysław Jerzykiewicz. Other Board Chairmen included Dr. Tadeusz Dębiński (until 1925), printer and publisher Józef Winniewicz, and then Professor of the Poznań University Dr. Paweł Gantkowski – a renowned hygienist, social activist, author of Medycyna pastoralna (Pastoral Medicine), and lecturer in hygiene at the Poznań Seminary [13].

In the first two years of its activities Stella organized a summer camp for children in Żabikowo near Poznań on the estates of Count Cieszkowski. The camp facilities were situated near a few-acre park. Bedrooms were modestly equipped with iron beds, straw-filled mattresses, bed linen and woolen blankets. The meals were substantial and nutritious. The campers were looked after by sisters of mercy who kept them busy with playing games, singing, and exercising. In 1897, 50 children took part in the camp in Żabikowo, in 1898 – 95 children [8].

After 1899 Stella organized summer camps in Kobylnica and other localities. It also sent children to Inowrocław for saline therapy, arranged holidays with host families in the country, and since 1913 organized day summer play centers in the city. Children who could not attend summer camps and play centers were offered ‘milk treatment’ in Poznań. Before their departure for holidays all children were medically examined free of charge. Stella, as the first aid society in Poznań, never forgot about poor children in Christmas time and distributed gifts to them on Epiphany.

In 1901, owing to the efforts of Count Engeström, a center for convalescent children was founded in Kobylnica, under the name of “Sanitary Station”. The station’s executive director became Duchess Ferdynandowa Radziwiłłowa, and the deputy director Duchess Zdzisławowa Czartoryska. Shortly after the establishment of the station the management started raising funds to buy beds for children. The annual maintenance cost of one bed amounted to 300 marks. Many individual contributors provided funds up to 1000 marks [14].

Initially, the Prussian authorities did not allow Stella to admit more than 12 children to the Kobylnica Station at a time, due to the lack of beds. Growing social needs, however, prompted the Association to add an extension to the premises. A new spacious room was added to the ground floor as well as seven bedrooms and a bathroom upstairs. After the furnishings were completed 21 children were admitted to the facility on May 1, 1914. At that time children at the age of 6 – 14, requiring recuperation from anemia, chorea, bronchitis, pneumonia, organic heart disease, tuberculous kyphosis, spinal curvature, cancer surgeries, etc. were admitted to Kobylnica free of charge. After Poland regained independence in 1918, priority was given to children from Poznań, soon however children from Berlin, Lvov, Silesia and eastern Poland were admitted as well.

According to Count Jan Żołtowski the daily expenses per child in Kobylnica amounted to 75 pfennigs, and with a host family they amounted to 1 mark. There were 26 host families in the Poznań Province, which took in children for vacation on a regular basis [14].

In 1911, there were 37 campers from families with one child, 59 – with two children, 102 – with three, 132 – with four, 131 – with five, 107 – with six, 45 – with seven, 8 – with eight, 1 – with eleven, and 1 – with twelve. The largest number of campers came from families with four or five children, which used to be the most common family model in Poznań at that time [14].

At camps children were discouraged from bad habits. They were to reconcile the rough camp life with a hygienic way of living. The campers developed social skills, made their beds, cleaned up cabins, and did all the housework themselves [6]. Good conduct and discipline were very important, and children who did not comply with the rules of behavior could not return to camp the following summer. In 1911 Stella campers put on weight from 2 to 4 pounds.

The Stella facility in Kobylnica was a sort of summer “green” school, for it provided some educational activities. The first green schools had been founded in Charlottenburg, Germany in 1904 by city councilor Dr. Neufert; by 1910 there had been seven fully-established green schools all over the country. The Polish periodical Museum (1/1911) reported that children participating in the green schools had achieved a great physical and mental improvement.

In Kobylnica, since January 1909 children learnt the Polish language and patriotic values from counselor Agnieszka Jaksiówna. As the funds kept flowing in, the campers on their departure from Kobylnica were also given prayer books.

The daily expenses per child in Kobylnica amounted to 85 pfennigs in 1902, 1 mark in 1913, and 1.11 marks in 1918. Campers usually put on weight four pounds [10, 14, 17].

In the sovereign Republic of Poland, Stella continued to organize summer camps and play centers for poor children from Poznań until 1925. Since 1926 the day play centers were run by the municipal council and various social organizations, and Stella focused mainly on the organization of summer and therapeutic camps. It also obtained some funds from the municipal government: 4,000 marks in 1920, 1,100 marks in 1921, and 190,000 marks in 1922 [11, 12].

In 1929 – the year of the Polish National Exhibition – Stella received a subsidy of 30,000 zlotys from the municipal government for organization of summer camps. Stella was planning to send 4,030 school students to summer camps for 300,000 zlotys. For this purpose the Society intended to rent school classrooms free of charge in the whole Wielkopolska Province; 620 children were sent to holidays thanks to the Landowners’ Society, whose members decided to place 140 children on their own estates. They included the Niegolewscy from Niegolewo, Countess Kwilecka from Dobrojewo, Countess Żychlińska from Gorazdowo, Countess Turno from Słomowo, and Count Potworowski from Zielięcin [2].

From 1896/7 until 1934, 46,330 children benefited from various kinds of activities organized by the Stella Society [15].

Stella continued its mission until the outbreak of WWII. Its camp activities were organized in compliance with the standards of the Polish Ministry of Social Welfare. “The daily activities were diverse. They included trips, sunbathing, swimming, physical exercises, plays and games, and talks. The meals were always filling and good [19]”.

[1] Achter Bericht über die Sommerpflege armem schwälicher und Kranker Schulkinder der Stadt Posen, 1889 (The eighth report on the summer programs for the poor and sick school children from the city of Posen), Posen 1889, pp. 4-8.

[2] Archiwum Miasta Poznania i Województwa Poznańskiego, Zespół Akt Miasta Poznania, Wydział Szkolny, Akta dotyczące spraw kolonii wakacyjnych (1 I 1924 – 3 X 1935) (The Archives of the City of Poznań and Poznań Province, School Division, papers concerning summer camps), catalog no. 3329, pp. 16-20.

[3] Büsing, F. W., Ferienkolonien (Summer camps) (in:) Enzyklopädisches Handbuch der Schulhygiene (Encyclopedic Handbook of School Hygiene), Wien und Leipzig 1904, pp. 163-173.

[4] Ditrich, L., Das öffentliche Gesundheitswesen des Regierungs-Bezirk Posen in den Jahren 1886, 1887 und 1888 (The state of public health in the Posen Province in the years 1886, 1887 and 1888), Posen 1891, pp. 219-220.

[5] Karwowski, S., Historia Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego. T. III 1890-1914 (History of the Grand Duchy of Poznań. Vol. III 1890-1914) Poznań 1931, p. 313.

[6] Kolonie wakacyjne w Poznańskiem (Summer camps in the Poznań Province), “Muzeum” (“Museum”) 4/1913, p. 545.

[7] Kozłowski, W. R., O rozpowszechnianiu kolonii letnich i ogrodów dziecięcych (On popularization of summer camps and playgrounds for children), “Zdrowie” Organ Warszawskiego Towarzystwa Higienicznego (“Health” The Organ of Warsaw Hygienic Association), Warszawa 1905, pp. 171-172.

[8] Łebiński, W., O koloniach wakacyjnych w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim (Summer camps in the Grand Duchy of Poznań), “Nowiny Lekarskie” (Medical News), 4/1898, pp. 239-240.

[9] Schmidt, O., General Bericht über das öffentliche Gesundheitswesen im Regierungs-Bezirk Posen für die Jahre 1892, 1893 und 1895 (General report on the state of public health in the Posen Province in the years 1892, 1893 and 1895), Posen 1897, pp. 249-252.

[10] Selter, H., Handbuch der Deutschen Schulhygiene (Handbook of German School Hygiene), Dresden und Leipzig 1914, pp. 424-426.

[11] Sprawozdanie Zarządu Stołecznego Miasta Poznania za czas od 1 kwietnia 1920 do 31 grudnia 1921 (An official report of the Poznań Municipal Government, April 1, 1920 – December 31, 1921), Poznań 1923, p. 42.

[12] Sprawozdanie Zarządu Stołecznego Miasta Poznania za czas od 1 stycznia 1920 do 31 grudnia 1922 (An official report of the Poznań Municipal Government, January 1, 1920 – December 31, 1922), Poznań 1924, p. 40.

[13] ”Stella” Towarzystwo Kolonii Wakacyjnych i Stacji Sanitarnych, Tow. zapisane w Poznaniu. XXXVII Sprawozdanie 1932/33 (The Poznań Association of Summer Camps and Sanitary Stations “Stella”. 37^th Report 1932/33), p. 2.

[14] ”Stella” Towarzystwo Kolonii Wakacyjnych i Stacji Sanitarnych, Tow. zapisane w Poznaniu. XXXI Sprawozdanie 1926 (The Poznań Association of Summer Camps and Sanitary Stations “Stella”. 31^st Report 1926), pp. 28-30.

[15] ”Stella” Towarzystwo Kolonii Wakacyjnych i Stacji Sanitarnych, Tow. zapisane w Poznaniu. XXXIX Sprawozdanie 1934/35 (The Poznań Association of Summer Camps and Sanitary Stations “Stella”. 39^th Report 1934/35), p. 10.

[16] Szenajch, W., Zasady organizacji i opieki nad dziećmi (Childcare organization rules), Warszawa 1917, pp. 126-127.

[17] Szkoły leśne w Niemczech (The Green Schools in Germany), “Muzeum” (Museum), 1/1911, p. 78.

[18] Zehnter Bericht über die Sommerpflege armem schwälicher und Kranker Schulkinder der Stadt Posen, 1891 (The tenth report on the summer programs for the poor and sick school children from the city of Posen), Posen 1892, p. 4.

[19] Ziółkowska, T., Kultura fizyczna w Poznaniu w latach 1870-1918 (Physical culture in Poznań in the years 1870-1918), “AWF Poznań Monografie Nr 303”, Poznań 1992, p. 102.