STUDIES IN PHYSICAL CULTURE AND TOURISM

The following study is aimed at examining the meaning of the “omada” as it was perceived by ancient Greeks, through the works of the epic cycle of Greek Grammatology. The study has been conducted on the basis of contemporary operational definitions and group characteristics that certify the perception of existence of a functional group or team. A literary approach was adopted to find words suggesting the meaning of a common action or work of a number of subjects possibly constituting a group. Although the meaning of sport team was not defined, various types of groups were identified. Chariot crews and playing teams functioned as sport teams. In the Odyssey music and dancing teams, hunting parties, and entertainment teams combined with acrobatics can be observed. On the other hand, war parties, military operation teams, and groups of gods and deities can be found in the Iliad.

The archaeological spade and the study of ancient texts have brought to light sufficient evidence on all the aspects of the long-lasting ancient Greek civilization. Ancient Greek literature is divided into nine periods: from the earliest one – the epic period – to the Roman period [1]. The former includes primarily the Iliad and the Odyssey by Homer; the Theogony, the Works and Days, and the Shield of Heracles by Hesiod; and secondarily the HomericHymns, whose date, origins, collector and author remain unknown. Exception is the Hymn to Apollo, which Thucydides [2]ascribes to Homer. The Orphic Hymns can also be included in this period as, according to Hasapis's study [3], their contents can be traced back as far as to the 14^th cent. BC. It is commonly recognized that there had been other poets before the Homeric period as well, e.g. Orpheus, Linos, Mousaios, Efmolpos, Thameris and others, whose works, however, have not survived.

Information about sport games is mainly provided by the Iliad and the Odyssey. Rhapsody 23 of the Iliad describes funeral sport games held in honour of the late Patroclus [4]. Significant information on sport games is also included in Rhapsody 6 of the Odyssey [5], in which references are made to games organized by the King of Phaiakon, Alcinous, in honour of his guest Odysseus. The same rhapsody contains examples of kinetic activities, which took place in public locations or in settings of the cities’ lords, e.g. shot put, dance and several gymnastic exercises, and other games. The examination of relevant literature reveals that no study with a psychological approach seems to have been conducted on any kinetic group activity or on any athletic or non-athletic situation demonstrating group characteristics in the broad or strict sense of the term.

Social psychology, which studies in a systematic way the human group in its various forms evolved in the mid-20^th century. Social psychologists, in order to suggest types of positive interventions in various social and work groups, studied the small group, in which they identified several characteristics and formulated operational definitions for the term group. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the characteristics displayed in the meaning of the omada (group/team), with particular emphasis on the notion of the sport team, in the way it was perceived during the epic period.

For the aforementioned purpose, texts from the epic period were studied on the basis of contemporary prevalent operational definitions and group characteristics that were identified in actions, perceptions, feelings and intentions of the subjects, clearly described in the ancient Greek language. A combination of these characteristics indirectly indicates the existence of a functional group. Also, the study was simultaneously conducted using literary research in which individual words were studied bearing refe-rence to a common action or work of a number of subjects possibly constituting a group. In other words, attention was given to simple or composite words in various forms of speech that signified the group character of the situation.

The way in which the group is perceived, and which constitutes a form of a person’s transition to society, according to Adorno and Horkaimer [6], is theoretically seen for the first time in Zimmel [7]. In the broad sense the term team can be comprehended either as a community of interests or as a random gathering of people; as a self-conscious community, or as a group of people with common characteristics. Nevertheless, the science of social psychology has attempted to extract, on the basis of certain distinct criteria, an identical core, which sometimes becomes typical, with only one meaning in a multi-meaning reality. A group “can be temporal or durable, organized or not, as long as it is in effect the same influence and common conscience between its members” [8] or “its members possess team spirit” [9].The same definition is given by Geiger who says that, “a number of individuals constitutes a group, when they are related to each other in such a way that each person feels part of the common we” [10]. In American sociology, distinguished for its behavioral approach, a typical meaning of the term group seems more objective: “It is a number of individuals, which have common interests, are intermotivated, have common faith in the group, and participate in common activities. Their number may range from a small family, composed of parents and a child…to a national group of millions of people” [11]. This definition includes every kind of social morpheme, so that Weise in Germany proceeded in dividing groups on the basis of the distance of individuals from those groups [12]. Particularly interesting is the small group, which Homans defines as “every person can be related with every other, directly and personally and without the intervention of somebody else” [13].

Cooley [14] calls small groups primary groups, whose main characteristics are very close and frequent contacts of persons that constitute them, and intense interactions to the point where the person’s personality is developed, or can almost be integrated. Those groups are natural morphemes in the narrow social context, in which people who constitute a family, neighborhood’s company of children, sport groups, educational groups and other ones live. Secondary groups consist of large numbers of people, e.g. nation, political party, social class.

A notional conflict has been observed between groups defined either as the sum of people constituting it, or as a separate entity. The group as a special entity comprises of “units of social life that exist and are preserved beyond the come and go of individual people” [15] and “in short, they have a unified and self-defined life, according to the meaning of individuality” [15]. In the 1920s, the group was interpreted as a phenomenon that derived from the contrast between the atomistic and the catholic perception. Since the appearance of Gestalt psychology, a perception that the individual’s relation to the group is functionally mutual has constantly prevailed [16]. Lewin, as one of the first founders of that theory, and of the “field theory” in particular, stated that “a group is best defined as a dynamic whole of people based rather on interdependence than on its members’ similarity” [17].It has also been stated that “a group is a number of interacting and sociometrically related individuals” [18], or a cycle of persons of small or large number that act together and simultaneously, because of the common consciousness of the situation. On the basis of group dynamics, Cartwright and Zander examined many definitions and determined that, “a group is a collection of individuals that are related to each other in such a way that they are interdepending in some significant degree” [19]. Johnson and Johnson summarized that, “a group is two or more individuals in face-to-face interaction, each aware of their membership in the group, and each aware of their positive interdependence as they strive to achieve mutual goals” [20].

Numerically, the smallest group is considered to be composed of at least two persons, who believe to be part of the same group [21]; “two or more persons who are interacting with one another in such a manner that one person influences and is influenced by another” [22];or “a set of individuals who share a common fate, that is, who are interdependent in the sense that an event which affects one member is likely to affect all.” [23].

In the case of sport teams, which constitute the most representational examples of small groups, the following definition was formulated: “the most important characteristics of a sport team is a collective identity, a sense of shared purpose, structured patterns of interaction, structured methods of communication, personal and task interdependence, and interpersonal attraction” [24].According to the theory of group dynamics, some of the most significant elements of a team’s characteristics are that they engage in frequent interaction. They define themselves as members and they are defined by others as belonging to the group; they share norms concerning matters of common interest and they participate in a system of interlocking roles; they identify with one another as a result of having set up the same model-object or ideals in their superego; they find the group to be rewarding and satisfying their needs, they pursue promotively interdependent goals or common goals, they have a collective perception of their unity, they tend to act in a unitary manner toward the environment, and they are characterized by cohesion, unity and group mind [25].

A representative type of sport team was a two-member chariot crew that participated in chariot games. In Rhapsody 23 of the Iliad, chariot games are held in honour of the late Patroclus. Referring to those games, Nestor narrates to Achilles the famous chariot team of Actor’s two sons “Twin brothers they were – one drove with sure hand, while the other plied the whip” [26]. The two-member crew constitutes the minimum numerical limit to define a group [27], while a group consisting of few members is a positive element for the development of intense interaction between its members. Basic characteristics of that team were the interdependent roles, since one was whipping the horses and the other was leading them, as well as the recognition by third people – in that case King Nestor, who was obviously recognized by all the inhabitants of Pylos and other regions. The fact that this particular team was characterized as invincible, shows that it was an established one, resulting in its permanence. This finding stresses the characteristic interaction developed between its members. Moreover, Nestor stresses the fact that he was defeated by those two in a chariot game, because they wanted to win to get prizes, which were the most valuable ones in that game. The common perseverance to the cause from both riders can be identified here, which is the main component of cohesion that made the team perform more effectively in those games and ultimately led them to victory. Also, their recognition by others furnishes evidence that there were many two-member chariot teams competing against each other. In the games in honour of Patroclos, references were made to competitive one-member chariot crews, thus not constituting a team.

A team in a group game can be found in Rhapsody 6 of the Odyssey, where Homer describes Nausicaa’s play with her handmaids, “Then when they had had their joy of food, she and her handmaids...fell to playing at ball, and white-armed Nausicaa was leader in the song…And even as Artemis,…, daughters of Zeus who bears the aegis, share her sport,…So then the princess tossed the ball to one of her maids; the maid indeed she missed, but threw it into a deep eddy,…” [28].

Artemis playing the same game points to the fact that it was an established game. The team's purpose in that game was entertainment and its characteristics referred to the interdependence of the leader and the members, since for the game to be in effect the ball should be accurately sent from one member to the other, while the latter should catch the ball in the air. The interaction feature obviously results from the team’s permanence and frequent contact between members. Nausicaa’s team game with her handmaids is described by Odysseus to her father Alcinous, King of the Phaecians, having been received in his palace: “Then I saw the handmaids of your daughter upon the shore at play” [29]. The same game was also cited in the Hymn to Demeter [30], where Persephone was carelessly playing in the field with a group of goddesses, as her own mother Demeter was narrating, just before being kidnapped by Pluto. Indeed, the teammates of Persephone were cited by their names “All we were playing in a lovely meadow, Leucippe and Phaeno and Electra and Lanthe, Melita also and Lache with Rhodea and Callirhoe and Melobosis and Tyche and Ocyrhoe, fair as a flower, Chryseis, Ianeira, Acaste and Admete and Rhodope and Pluto and charming Calypso; Styx too was there and Urania and lovely Galaxaura with Pallas who rouses battles and Artemis delighting in arrows: we were playing and gathering sweet flowers in our hands, soft crocuses mingled with irises and hyacinths,…” [30].

Studying the previous references it could be asserted that they concerned teams composed of a few members featuring friendly relationships among them like Persephone’s team, or compulsory team membership, e.g. Nausicaa’s team of handmaids obliged to serve and entertain the princess. However, that does not exclude a possibility that friendly relationships existed between the princess and her handmaids. In any case, those were teams of kinetic recreation, of a small and established number of members, famous, as in the case of the Hymn to Demeter, for playing together with the ball, singing and at the same time picking flowers. The fact that Nausicaa trusted her handmaids shows that their trust had been tested over time, and therefore a positive attitude had been developed among them. On the other hand, the handmaids were attracted to the princess because of her rank, which in current theories is referred to as the individuals’ attraction to individuals of higher social status [31]. In regard to Persephone’s team, the mutual attraction between members of the team derived from the same social class, which was the divine being of her teammates [32]. Furthermore, a frequent contact could be revealed, which is considered to be a prerequisite for the development of interaction. This characteristic feature of frequency in a long duration constitutes a more cohesive group, as it can be observed in Persephone’s seizure. Because, in order for Pluto to plan her seizure, the daily habits of the young goddess should have been watched and recorded.

A type of team aimed at the entertainment of the palace people, with special features like music, dance and gymnastic exercises is described in Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, in Hesiod’s Shield of Heracles, as well as in an anonymous poet’s Hymn to Apollo. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 18, devoted by Homer to the forging of Achilles' weapons by Hephaestus, among the representations made by the craftsman on the shield one can find a dancing team composed of two dancers who also perform gymnastic exercises: “And a great company stood around the lovely dance taking joy in it; and two tumblerswhirled up and down among them, leading the dance” [33]. Similarly, in Rhapsody 4 of the Odyssey, where Telemachus in seek of information about his wandering father is being hosted in Menelaus’ palace, a dance and music-gymnastic team offers a spectacle to the palace people and their guest. The special characteristics of that team are similar with those reported in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 18, with the addition of a minstrel singing to the lyre, “So they were feasting in the great high-roofed hall, the neighbors and kinsfolk of glorious Menelaus, and making merry; and among them a divine minstrel was singing to the lyre, and two tumblers whirled up and down through the midst of them, leading the dance” [34]. Also, in Odyssey’s Rhapsody 8, in Alcinous palace where Odysseus is being hosted, a group activity of two famous dancers and acrobats who simultaneously play with the ball, is more precisely described: “Then Alcinous made Halius and Laodamas dance alone, for no one could vie with them. And when they had taken in their hands the beautiful ball of purple, which wise Polybus had made them, the one would lean backward and toss it toward the shadowy clouds, and the other would leap up from the earth and skillfully catch it before his feet touched the ground again. But when they had tried their skill in tossing the ball straight up, the two fell dancing on the bounteous earth, constantly tossing the ball to and fro, and the other youths stood in the place of contests and beat time, and loud was the applause that arose” [35].

In the last two references, it can be observed that almost the same group activity is described in two different regions (Menelaus’ palace in Sparta, and Alcinous’ palace in the island of the Phaiakon). In Menelaus’ palace the activity includes three elements, “singing to the lyre…two tumblers…leading the dance” [36]. However, an element which stands out and is absolutely common in the two different references is the two tumblers' team. In the reference to Alcinous, a more complete description is given and the characteristic of interdependence towards the aim’s achievement is brought to light, since, in order to produce the spectacle, one should toss the ball up and the other should catch it while airborne. Moreover, the fact that Alcinous called specifically for his two sons Halius and Laodamas (as the best ones) in order to honor the foreigner, reveals the characteristic of recognition by a third person and the fact that they were members of the same team, established in Phaiakon’s society and possibly in the whole ancient Greece. That characteristic feature in conjunction with the co-ordination of the two tumblers signifies a preceding, long-lasting engagement with that matter, and indicates that naturally an intense interaction should have existed between them. It is therefore a small team of long duration that could be characterized as permanent.

Furthermore in the Odyssey’s Rhapsody 8, the dance and music part of the celebrating event commences in line 260, where Alcinous calls for the famous singer Demodocus to play the guitar, while groups of young people form around him and start dancing, before Halius and Laodamas are called for: “And around him stood boys in the first bloom of youth, well skilled in the dance, and they struck the sacred dancing floor with their feet” [37]. Those groups are reported in the wide sense of the term team, with no information regarding their number or the number of each team’s members. Surely, it is justifiable, as because of the limited space not many members could have positioned themselves around a singer. Those groups are interpreted as informal and occasional and do not seem to possess any dynamics, like the one of the famous Halius and Laodamas. However, it should be noted that a comparison of the two famous dancers with the others and their distinction possibly suggests the existence of more famous duets, being engaged in dancing events in conjunction with ball games. Furthermore, the fact that Polybus is being referred to as an experienced ball constructor, pertains to the fact that he had constructed other balls as well, in order to satisfy the needs of other dancing groups.

Moreover, in the Shield of Heracles, Hesiod describes the deathless gods’ dance at Olympus, to the accompaniment of Apollo’s lyre, where gods and nymphs were dancing; “And there was the holy company of the deathless gods, and in the midst the son of Zeus and Leto played sweetly on a golden lyre…” [38]. The Muses’ singing group is then mentioned: “Also the goddesses, the Muses of Pieria began a song like clear-voiced singers” [39]. The Muses’ team is cited in many places throughout the examined works, in regard to their common origin. Since Zeus was their father, they belong to the primary groups [40].

Dancing teams of young men and women to the accompaniment of flute, as well as equestrian teams, are depicted by Hesiod in the Shield of Heracles, but these teams are presented in the broad meaning of the term [41]. The classifications of certain activities take place in a city, which the poet imagines to be in a period of peace, and whose product are cultural teams.

Dancing and equestrian teams are mentioned in the Homeric Hymn “To Delian Apollo”, where in honour of Apollo in Delos, the Ions and their children were gathered, and dancing and fighting games were organized, “…mindful, they delight you with boxing and dancing and song, so often as they hold their gathering” [42].Those teams are defined in the wide sense of the term, except for the Daughters of Delos, who, like the Muses, were a composed team that praised the gods and could have been integrated in the category of small groups with high interaction among group members.

Also, in the Hymn to Pythian Apollo the gods’ dance is cited, in which groups of gods and various deities form a dancing team to the musical accompaniment of Apollo’s lute and under supervision of his mother Leto and Zeus. “Meanwhile the rich-dressed Graces and cheerful Seasons dance with Harmonia and Hebe and Aphrodite, daughter of Zeus, holding each other by the wrist” [43]. Three divine groups can be distinguished: the Graces verified in the Orphic Hymns and numbered to three [44]; the Hours that are mentioned by their names and number, like in the Orphic Hymns [45]; and also Aphrodites, representing the gods of Olympus.

For a long time ago, people have formed hunting groups of a few or more members. Those groups were created with the aim to find food, eliminate a dangerous beast or entertain the hunters. In the Iliad, hunting of dear and wild goat is mentioned in the reference to the panicking Trojans who were retrieving in some phase of the battle, like hunted animals, “But as dogs and country people pursue a horned stag or a wild goat,…” [46]. In those verses no special characteristics can be observed which might reveal the existence of a team in the strict sense of the term. The composition of hunting groups is only certified if their goal is hunting either for food or for sport. In the Odyssey, a hunting group and its famous members are mentioned while hunting a wild boar, “…that the beaters reached a certain wooded hollow. Ahead of them ran the hounds, hot on a scent. Behind came Autolycus’ sons, and with them the good Odysseus, close up on the pack and brandishing his long spear” [47].Autolycus and Odysseus are famous hunters and constitute a small team. There may also have been other members of the team who would have escorted the king’s children. Here, the common goal can be demonstrated, which is the hunt for the wild boar, and also the feature of recognition by others, expressed by the maid’s recognition of Odysseus at the sight of his wound from a wild boar and her reference to that particular group.

In the Shield of Heracles Hesiod describes a rabbit hunt by groups composed of a few members “...and huntsmen chasing swift hares with a leash sharp…” [48].In those verses, other group characteristics are not cited, but it should be pointed out that their description was made in the context of a castled state, in which other types of groups were also described, like dancing groups, sport groups, work groups, rural groups and others that the poet was envisaging in a peaceful state [49].

Considering the notion that beyond the narrow context of sport, dancing and hunting teams, characteristics of a group are similar, independently of its aim of creation and composition, this study has also included the investigation of various characteristics of other groups.

One category is divine groups, which are generally classified as natural groups, because their members descend from the same parent. Divine groups are observed in Homer’s both works, though mostly in the Iliad, with the dominant group of gods, while others groups are cited as well, like the group of Muses, Graces, Eileithyiaes, Hours, Nireides, etc. In the Iliad, the gods of Olympus, despite the common origin, which classifies them as a primary group, participate directly or indirectly in the Trojan War. Therefore the poet, who expresses the common perception of his era, describes the actions, emotions or judgements among members about themselves and others, which refer to characteristic features similar to the ones mentioned earlier in the text. In the following verse, the goddess Hera, who wants to strengthen her position in the group of gods, is trying to influence Zeus by addressing these words to him: “for truly you are far the mightier. Still my labor too must not be made οf no effect; for I also am a god, and my birth is from the same stock as yours, and crooked-counseling Cronos begot me as the most honored οf his daughters, doubly so, since I am eldest and am called your wife, while you are king among all the immortals” [50].Hera recognizes Zeus’ superiority and reminds him that they descend from the same parent. It is characteristic that she identifies herself as belonging to the group of gods, while there is also the characteristic of her role as Zeus’ wife, as well as being part ofhierarchy, since she is self-determining her ranking among gods just below Zeus. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 1, the gods’ team activity is being demonstrated with Zeus at the head of them: “Now when the twelfth dawn after this had come, then to Olympus came the gods who are forever, all in one company, and Zeus led the way” [51]. The members’ common place of living is also demonstrated, and that is Olympus. The respect of all the members of the Olympian team is denoted in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 1, “All the gods together rose from their seats in deference to their father; nor did any dare to remain seated at his coming, but they all rose up to greet him. So he sat down on his throne;” [52]. The members’ respect towards the team’s natural leader indicates the leader–members interaction. Reference to the gathered members of the Olympian gods is also made in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 15: “and she came to steep Olympus, and found the immortal gods gathered together in the house of Zeus” [53], as well as in Rhapsody 20, “thus theyweregathered inside the house of Zeus” [54], and 24: “and they found the son of Cronos, whose voice resounds afar, and around him sat together all the other blessed gods who are for ever” [55]. Furthermore, in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 15, Poseidon while speaking to goddess Iris recalls that together with his brother gods Zeus and Hades they are offspring of the same father (Cronos) and mother (Rhea). He also states that he is aware of his power and roles, and that he, Zeus, and Hades constitute a special three-member group among gods. Being doubtful of Zeus’ total leadership, he only recognizes him as leader in the sky and considers him to be equal with him. “For three brothers are we, begotten by Cronos, and born of Rhea – Zeus, and myself, and the third is Hades, who is lord of the dead below. And in three ways have all things been divided, and to each has been apportioned his own domain. I indeed, when the lots were shaken, won the gray sea to be my home for ever” [56].

In Rhapsody 2 of the Iliad, the poet is referring to the Muses’ group, where their common descent and special role is demonstrated, which is the praise of the heroes’ and gods’ deeds. Their common place of living is also mentioned, which in combination with their common work, reveals an intense interaction developed among team’s members: “The Muses of Olympus, daughters of Zeus who bears the aegis, call to my mind all those who came beneath Ilios” [57].

Also, in Rhapsody 24 of the Odyssey, the poet refers to the Muses’ group by number nine, and their musical role is verified, “the Nine Muses chanted your dirge in sweet antiphony” [58], and shows a team with a small number of members that, apart from their common origin, suggests an intense interaction among them. Hesiod calls them Heliconiades, for they live on the mountain Helicon, and recognizes in them the same characteristics like Homer, including their permanence as a team. “From the Heliconian Muses let us begin to sing, who hold the great and holy mount of Helicon, and dance on soft feet about the deep-blue spring and the altar of the almighty son of Cronos” [59]. In other verses he also refers to them by their names, “these things, then, the Muses sang who dwell on Olympus, nine daughters begotten by great Zeus, Cleio and Euterpe, Thaleia, Melpomene and Terpsichore, and Erato and Polymnia and Urania and Calliope” [60]. Hesiod in Works and Days, calls the Muses’ group Pierides because they live on Olympus, located in Pieria’s county: “Muses of Pieria who give glory through song, come hither, tell of Zeus your father and chant his praise” [61]. It is the same team that is named after the region of its location [62]. In the Orphic Hymns, the Muses are also defined as Pierian and are cited by their names, like in Hesiod [63].

In Homer’s Iliad [64] and Odyssey [65], a group of deities with the name Horae is cited. Hesiod calls them by the names of Eurinome, Justice and Peace [66; 67]. The same group is praised in the 43^rd Orphic Hymn to the Horae [68]. It is a group of three eminent deities aiming at the preservation of nature’s order and regular climate changes per season, with whom the growth and the fertility of the plants are occurring.

Moreover, being a cohesive group, with the common origin and aim, the three-member team of the mythological giants could be classified as a special divine category defined by Zeus as a warders' team. “There Gyes and Cottus and great-souled Obriareus live, trusty warders of Zeus who hold aegis” [69]. Due to Achilles’ injury, Homer refers to a group of Eileithyiae, who are deities with the special assignment to provoke pain warning for labour. This is a primary group, a natural one whose members descent from the common mother Hera, “…the piercing dart that the Eileithyiae, goddesses of childbirth, send – the daughters of Hera who have bitter pangs in their keeping – so sharp pains came on the mighty son of Atreus” [70].

Groups of deities are mainly cited in the Orphic Hymnsand partially in Hesiod’s Theogony. They are all characterized by being primary groups. They have the same parent and common purposerecognized by third people, and they are also aware that they belong to the same group.In Hymn 21, the group of Nephon that aims at the creation of rain is mentioned [71]. In Hymn 24 there are the Nereides, a group of sea nymphs [72]. The group of Koureites, composed of two brothers that are priests, is cited in Hymn 31 [73]. The Titans, the gods who reigned before the Olympian gods, are described in Hymn 37 [74]. In Hymn 51 are the Nymphs who were friends of play (philopaigmonaes) [75]; in 59 the Fates, a group of three eminent deities [76]; in 60 the Graces, named Aglaea, Thaleia, and Euphrosyne [77]; in 69 the Herinyes, Tisiphore, Allekto and Megaira [78]; in 70 the Eumenides that protected those in need of protection [79]; and finally in Hymn 81 the Auras or Zephyretedes [80].

Primary groups of mortals descending from the same parent are cited in the Iliad’s 12 Rhapsody and include Teucer and Telamonian Aias: “So saying Telamonian Aias went away, and with him went Teucer, his own brother, son of the same father, and with them Pandion carried the curved bow of Teucer” [81]. With the addition of Pandion, the group becomes a three-member war team. In the Iliad, the sons of Priam, the Atrides and others are also mentioned. Nestor’s suggestion to Agamemnon marks an awareness of the special unity and solidarity that can be developed in groups composed of relatives, or in those united by bonds of blood or by common descent, “separate the men by tribes, by clans, Agamemnon, so that clan may aid clan and tribe tribe” [82].

Also, the Iliad includes numerous military teams, which is natural, because, due to Achilles’ rage, the poet describes battles and military deeds of his heroes during the tenth year of the Trojan War. In particular, a large number of two-member chariot crews are described. It is known that the chariot was used in organized face-to-face battles, while it also served a transportation purpose. A characteristic example is the description of Achilles’ chariot crew, “and Automedon and Alcinous set about busily to yoke the horses,...And Automedon grasped in his hand the bright whip that fitted it well, and leapt on the chariot; and behind him stepped Achilles armed for battle” [83].

In those verses, the three-member chariot crew and the interdependent roles can be distinguished. While Achilles is fighting with his weapons, Automedon is the charioteer and together with Alcinous are preparing the chariot. In many other refe-rences, the number of the chariot crew members is two. This is characteristic of a small group, where its members display interdependent roles. Also, the long nine-year duration of the war leads to a conclusion that this is a lasting team, a fact that presupposes interaction between team members, which develops a dynamic situation on the battlefield. The poet recognizes that famous members belong to that team, which is shown by the feature of recognition by third people. A two-member team is formed by Priam and his charioteer, “and by his side Antenor mounted the beautiful chariot” [84]. It is probable that Priam, as a king, used all the time the same charioteer, Antenor, for transportation and, although the team seems to be formed in the wide sense of the term group, it could have been a permanent one. Military chariot teams with a lasting existence are mentioned in many places in the Iliad. In Rhapsody 5, a two-member team of Trojan warriors attacks Diomedes during the battle: “Now there was among the Trojans one Dares,…and he had two sons, Phegeus and Idaeus,…against Diomedes, they in their chariot” [85]. The lasting existence of the team reveals the intense interaction between its members. In the same rhapsody, chariot teams in the wide sense of the term can be observed among gods; “and she mounted on the chariot, her heart distraught, and beside her mounted Iris and took the reins in her hands. She touched the horses with the whip to start them” [86], as well as the team of Hera and Athena that was temporarily formed [87]. Also, in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 5, a mixed team of the mortal Diomedes and the goddess Athena is described, “And she stepped into the chariot beside noble Diomedes, a goddess eager for battle” [88]. There are also the chariot crews of the Trojans Mydon and Tilaimenis [89] and Axilus’ team with his charioteer Calesius [90]. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 8, Hector's military chariot crew including his murdered charioteer Archeptolemus is cited [91]. Furthermore, in Rhapsody 11, where battles are described, three more references to military chariot crews can be distinguished. In the first one, a plethora of chariot teams and co-operation between the warrior and the charioteer are noticed: “Then on his own charioteer each man laid the charge to hold in his horses all in good order there at the trench, but they themselves on foot, arrayed in their armor, rushed swiftly forward, and a cry unquenchable rose up before the face of Dawn. In advance of the charioteers were they arrayed at the trench, but after them a little followed the charioteers” [92]. In the second reference, Agamemnon meets Priam’s famous sons who constitute a chariot team on the battlefield, “And made straight to slay Isus and Antiphus, two sons of Priam, one a bastard and one born in wedlock, the two being in one chariot: the bastard held the reins, but glorious Antiphus stood by his side to fight” [93], whom he later kills. The third reference is related to Agamemnon’s chariot, “Then he leapt on his chariot and commanded his charioteer to drive to the hollow ships” [94]. There is finally the fourth one about Diomedes’ two-member chariot crew, who leaves the battlefield injured, “Then he leapt on to his chariot and he charged his charioteer to drive to the hollow ships, for he was pained at heart” [95]. In Rhapsody 12, the Trojans are cooperating in battle with their charioteers, “then on his own charioteer each man laid the charge to hold back his horses all in good order there at the trench” [96].

In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 16, the chariot crew of Hector with his charioteer is also mentioned, “then to battle-minded Cebriones glorious Hector gave command to whip his horses into the battle” [97], while in Rhapsody 20, another famous Trojan chariot crew is quoted: “Then setting on Laogonus and Dardanus, two sons of Bias, he thrusts them both from their chariot to the ground” [98]. Reference to a chariot crew team is made by Hesiod in the Shield of Heracles, where the representations of Heracles and Iolaos, the charioteer, are described [99].

A representative example of a small group is the ship crew. Ship crews are nowadays regarded as small groups, whose special characteristic is frequent contact and members’ interaction. In the Homeric Hymn to Dionysus, pirates capture him, and without knowing he is a god, they put him on board, “When they saw him they made signs to one another and sprang out quickly, and seizing him straightway, put him on board their ship exultingly” [100]. In these verses, the pirates’ team purpose is demonstrated, which was the kidnapping of Dionysus, in order to ask for ransom and complete their mission. Then, their helmsman advises them to release him because he suspects Dionysus’ divine entity: “Then the helmsman understood all and cried out at once to his fellows and said…” [101]. The master’s intervention follows, who persists on kidnapping him criticizing the helmsman, “but the master chides him with taunting words: Madman, mark the wind and help hoist sail on the ship: catch all the sheets”[102]. From the last two references to the pirates’ team, which is simultaneously a ship crew, some roles that can be identified refer to hierarchy, leadership and members’ interaction. Ship crews are mentioned in all Homer’s works. Apparently, interaction among ship crew members is high and the team is a lasting one, since its members keep together for a long time.

In the Iliad, a ship crew of 20 [103] and 50 men is described, “in each ship…were fifty men, his comrades…pilots…stewards” [104], whereas in the Odyssey a ship crew of 20 men is present, “twenty rowers – men” [105]. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 2, the leaders of the armies and the number of the ships that sailed to Troy are referred to by their names [106].

Many teams of military operations are also occasionally formed: “but the Cadmeians,...fifty youths and two there were as leaders, Maeon,...and Polyphontes, firm in the fight” [107]. Here the characteristic of the leader is shown, the number of team’s members (50), their common purpose being the killing of Tideus (cited in previous verses) and recognition by others, that those fifty persons belonged to that particular team along with their famous leaders. This is obviously a temporary team.

Furthermore, a withstanding example of a war team is the one of the Trojan Horse. The characteristic that can be identified is the common purpose of formation of the team and the awareness of its role, as well as of its leader, Odysseus; “…while those others led by glorious Odysseus were now sitting in the place of assembly of the Trojans, hidden in the horse;” [108]. This is a temporary team. A reference to another famous heroes’ team from the mythology is made by Hesiod. The team is composed of Heracles and Iolaos, whereas the goddess Athena who could have been added as well, supports them in all their accomplishments. “And her Heracles, the son of Zeus, of the house of Amphitryon, together with warlike Iolaus, destroyed with the unpitying sword through the plans of Athene the spoil-driver” [109].

The Olympian gods’ team with Zeus in the lead is also considered to be a decision making team, “now the gods, seated by the side of Zeus, were holding assembly” [110]. Also, under Nestor’s general command, the group of the elderly gathers for a meeting. During that meeting commenced by Agamemnon, Nestor speaks and encourages the leaders who are discouraged by the plague and deaths caused by god Apollo; “He spoke, and led the way out of the council, and the other sceptered kings rose up and obeyed the shepherd of men; and the troops were hurrying on” [111]. In those verses, the interaction feature can be identified, and the difference in the members psychological state before and after Nestor’s speech. There is also a description of a meeting of the leaders under Agamemnon’s general leadership, where members of those teams who made decisions, were famous and had a certain number of leaders, according to the poet’s description in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 2[112].

A rare type of social group is described in the Odyssey, which is constituted by the suitors hanging out in Odysseus’ palace who flirt with Penelope, having their eyes on the throne and entertaining themselves damaging the royal property. “But the suitors in front of the palace of Odysseus were making merry, throwing the discus and the javelin in a leveled place…; and Antinous and godlike Eurymachus were sitting there, the leaders of suitors” [113]. Telemachus, in seek of his father, speaks to the disguised goddess Athena and asks her about the identity of the gathered throng, located in and around his father’s palace, “what feast, what throng is this?”[114]. The group characteristic shown here is the common purpose which unites the members, pertaining to entertainment, welfare, and marriage with Penelope. The interaction among members seems to be high, because the suitors’ contact is frequent. Also, some suitors are referred to by their names, whereas in other verses, their number and origins are mentioned. “From Dulichium there are fifty-two, the pick of its young men, with six serving-men. From Same there are twenty-four, and from Zacynthus twenty noblemen; from Ithaca itself a dozen of its best, and with them Medon the herald, and an inspired minstrel, besides two servants, expert carvers” [115]. This reference offers the characteristic of recognition by others, since the suitors are all part of the same team.

Solidarity is a group characteristic that reinforces the group's dynamics. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 3, the following verses demonstrate solidarity among the Achaeans: “but the Achaeans..., breathing fury eager at heart to come and assist each other” [116], whereas Rhapsody 15 reveals the element of being united at heart: “For shame held them and fear; for unceasingly they called aloud one to the other” [117]. In the following citation, the common purpose, which refers to defending to death of Patroclus, unites team members and reinforces cohesion. “But the Achaeans stood firm about the son of Menoetius with one purpose, fenced about with shields of bronze” [118]. The major component of cohesion is the perseverance to the cause [119]. Finally, many labour/rural teams are described by Hesiod as well [120].

The study of the texts from the epic period reveals in many verses a great number of actions or activities of crowds of people being in a situation of unity and group in the broad sense of the term, that can be psychologically interpreted by the crowd theory [121]. Because the study of the verses was originally conducted in ancient Greek with the aid of valid translations by distinguished scholars of Papyrus Publications [122]andLiddell & Skott reliable dictionaries [123], it was ascertained that in those phrases describing unitary actions, activities or situations, derivatives of the adjective omos, omi, omon meaning the same and constituting the root of the word team/group are included in various forms. “It was his two sons that lord Agamemnon took, the two being in one chariot, and together(omou)they were seeking to contain the swift horses”[124]. It can be observed that, although the two-member chariot crew constitutes a small group with intense interaction between its members, the poet places emphasis on the common effort with the adjective or adverb omou = together, which is to control the swift horses. The same grammatical form is found in Hesiod’s works. Also, the derivative noun omados = throng is used to denote team effort: “But they who were with the son of Atreus gathered in a throng, and the noise and din of their coming roused him” [125].

A remarkable approach towards the sense of the notion of group using the noun throng is adopted in the Iliad’s Rhapsody 7, in its accusative form in the meaning of a group of spectators of a common spectacle. The poet describes the throng of Trojan soldiers who are watching Hector’s duel with Aianta shouting and making noises, to whom Hector returns after the duel, whereas Aias comes back to the Achaeans respectively. “So they parted, and one went to the army of the Achaeans, and the other went to the throng of the Trojans” [126]. Group’s characteristics here are the same ethnicity (Trojans, Greeks), gathering in the same place, simultaneous shouting of the Trojans, common purpose – viewing of the duel, and support of their representatives in that duel. The psychology of the group is that of the crowd. It refers to large groups without a common contact among its members. This is a temporary team, since it is formed only for viewing the duel and is composed of existing opponent soldiers. The same grammatical form (omadon = tumult) is used by Hesiod to describe the opponent soldiers depicted in the shield of Heracles, built by Hephaestus; “They would cast that one behind them, and rush back again into the tumult and the fray” [127]. In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 19, the noun omados in its dative form omado = the uproar of many, expresses a team situation: “And among the uproar of many how should a man either hear or speak?” [128].

Also, the composite noun omilos (group), whose first composite is omos and the second is ili meaning cavalry, is metaphorically used for the ascription of various groups of numerous members (omos+ili = omilos = throng). In the Iliad’s Rhapsody 3, Alexander returns to the Trojans’ throng, “so did godlike Alexander, seized with fear of Atreus’ son, shrink back into the throng of the lordly Trojans” [129]. In Rhapsody 19, omilos is used in the verb form omilisosi, “when once the ranks of men meet” [130]. In the Odyssey, the noun omilos applies to the suitors flirting with Penelope. The poet refers to them as the suitors’ throng [131]. The Homeric Epics and Hesiod’s works include many similar grammatical forms, denoting opponent warriors illustrated in the hero’s shield.

In the contemporary Greek language, to indicate the notion of team the noun omas – omados (group) is used, from which according to Kontos [132], after the Homeric and Byzantine periods the form omada – omadas (group) [133]and sport team was formed. Many Greek scholars from the Hellenistic to the modern years assert that the word omas and omada are derivatives of the adjective omos-omi-omon meaning the one and only, he/she/it, the same or alike, the common, the united. In Latin, it is expressed in the form communis [132, 133]. It is possible that omos derives from the adverb ama meaning right away, simultaneously and it is mainly used as a temporary adverb. Adamantios Korais asserts that the word omos may derive from the adverb from the Dorian dialect oma, and is similar to the dative form of the noun oma [134]. Kallimachus[135] also used the form kath’oma, which in Hesychious dictionary is recorded in the form kathomon meaning the same as (kath’omoion) [136]. Souidas interprets kathomon as unity and friendship[137]. During the Byzantine years, the adverb omadon was formed which derives from the noun omada and means omadika i.e. all together, all at the same time.

It can be concluded that a definition of group or team is not to be found in the works of the epic cycle. However, many activities from two or more persons were observed, in which some characteristics that establish various types of groups were identified. These characteristics are the common purpose, recognition by others, consciousness of belonging to the group, interdependent roles, interaction among members, leadership, solidarity, unity and cohesion. The sport teams described are chariot crews, or playing teams with or without the ball in conjunction with gymnastic exercises. In the Odyssey there are mostly, music and dancing teams, entertainment teams combined with acrobatics, and hunting teams. Despite a few references to sport teams in the Iliad, war groups and teams of military operations are denoted, resulting naturally from the Trojan War operations, whereas groups of gods and deities were cited in many other places as well.

[1] Liddell, H.G., Skott, A., Summary table of the periods of Greek Grammatology. Great Dictionary of the Greek Language, I. Sideris Publications, Athens 1948, p. 1.

[2] Thucydides, Histories, G, 104.

[3] Hasapis, C., Greek astronomy in the second millennium BC according to the Orphic Hymns, Doctoral Dissertation 1967, D.P. Papaditsas & E. Ladia, Orphic Hymns, Imago Publications, Athens 1984, p. 8.

[4] Homer, Iliad, 23.

[5] Homer, Iliad, 6.

[6] Adorno, T., Horkaimer M., Institut für Sozialforschung Soziologische Exkurse 1956, Kritiki Publications, Athens 1987, p. 75.

[7] Zimmel, G., Soziologie, 2^nd Ed., Muenchen, Lipsia 1922.

[8] Oppenheimer, F., System der Soziologie, vol. 1, no. 2, 1923, (in:) T. Adorno, M. Hor-chaimer, Institut für Sozialforschung Soziologische Exkurse 1956, Kritiki Publications, Athens 1987, p. 462.

[8] McDougall, W., The Group Mind, Cambridge University Press, London 1921, p. 66.

[10] Geiger, T., Sociologie, Kopeghagen 1939, p. 36.

[11] Bogardus, E.S., Sociologei, New York 1940, p. 4.

[12] Weise, L., System der Allgemeinen Soziologie, Muenchen, Lipsia 1933.

[13] Homans, G., The Human Group, New York 1950, p. 2.

[14] Cooley, C. H., Human Nature and the Social Order, Scribner, New York 1902.

[15] Vierkandt, A., Kleine Gesellschaftslehre, Stoutgardi 1949.

[16] Adorno, T., Horkaimer, M., Institut fur Sozialforschung Soziologische Exkurse, 1956, Kritiki Publications, Athens 1987, p. 84.

[17] Lewin, K., The field theory, Harper & Row Publishers, New York 1948, p. 84.

[18] Festinger, L., Schachter, S., Back, K., Social pressures in informal groups, Stamford University Press 1950, p. 58.

[19] Cartwright, D., Zander, A., Groups and Group Membership, (in:) D. Cartwright, A. Zander, eds., Group Dynamics: Research and theory, Harper & Row Publishers, New York 1968, pp. 45-62.

[20] Johnson, D.W., Johnson, F.P., Group theory and group skills, 3^rd Ed., NJ: Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs 1987, p. 8.

[21] Bales, R., Interaction process analysis, Addison-Wesley Press, Cambridge, Mass 1950, p. 46.

[22] Show, M.E., Group Dynamics, 3^rd Ed., McGraw-Hill, New York 1978, p. 8.

[23] Fiedler, F.E., A theory of leadership effectiveness, McGraw-Hill, New York 1967.

[24] Carron, A.V., Social psychology of sport, Movement Publications, Ithaca, New York 1980.

[25] Cartwright, D., Zander, A., Groups and Group Membership (in:) D. Cartwright, A. Zander, eds., Group Dynamics: Research and theory, Harper & Row Publishers, New York 1968, pp. 45-62.

[26] Homer, Iliad, 23, 641-642.

Bales, R., Interaction process analysis, Addison-Wesley Press, Cambridge, Mass 1950.

[28] Homer, Odyssey, 6, 99-116.

[29] Homer, Odyssey, 7, 290-291.

[30] The Homeric Hymns, To Demeter, 417-425.

[31] Lott, A.J., Lott, B.E., Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: A review of relationships with antecedents and consequent variables, “Psychological Bulletin”, 64, 1965, pp. 259-309.

[32] Lott, A.J., Lott, B.E., Group cohesiveness as interpersonal attraction: A review of relationships with antecedents and consequent variables “Psychological Bulletin”, 64, 1965, pp. 259-309.

[33] Homer, Iliad, 18, 604-605.

[34] Homer, Odyssey, 4, 15-19.

[35] Homer, Odyssey, 8, 370-379.

[36] Homer, Odyssey, 4, 15-19.

[37] Homer, Odyssey, 8, 262-264.

[38] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 201-202.

[39] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 204-206.

[40] Cooley, C.H., Human Nature and the Social Order, Scribner, New York 1902.

[41] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 278-324.

[42] The Homeric Hymns, To Delian Apollo, 149-164.

[43] The Homeric Hymns, To Pythian Apollo.

[44] The Orphic Hymns, 60, The Graces.

[45] The Orphic Hymns, The Hours.

[46] Homer, Iliad, 15, 271-272.

[47] Homer, Odyssey, 19, 435-439.

[48] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 301-302.

[49] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 270-325.

[50] Homer, Ιliad, 4, 56-61.

[51] Homer, Iliad, 1, 493-495.

[52] Homer, Iliad, 1, 533-536.

[53] Homer, Iliad, 15, 83-85.

[54] Homer, Iliad, 20, 10-13.

[55] Homer, Iliad, 24, 62-63.

[56] Homer, Iliad, 15, 187-199.

[57] Homer, Iliad, 2, 488-492.

[58] Homer, Odyssey, 24, 60-61.

[59] Hesiod, Theogony, 1-4.

[60] Hesiod, Theogony, 74-79.

[61] Hesiod, Works and Days, 1-2.

[62] Lekatsa, P., Introduction to Hesiod, Works and Days, vol. VI, Papyrus, Athens 1975.

[63] The Orphic Hymns, The Muses, 76.

[64] Homer, Iliad, 5, 749.

[65] Homer, Odyssey, 24, 344.

[66] Hesiod, Theogony, 58-62.

[67] Hesiod, Theogony, 901.

[68] The Orphic Hymns, The Horae, 43.

[69] Hesiod, Theogony, 735.

[70] Homer, Iliad, 11, 269-272.

[71] The Orphic Hymns, 21, The Nephi.

[72] The Orphic Hymns, 24, The Nereides.

[73] The Orphic Hymns, 31, The Koureites.

[74] The Orphic Hymns, 37, The Titans.

[75] The Orphic Hymns, 51, The Nymphs.

[76] The Orphic Hymns, 59, The Fates.

[77] The Orphic Hymns, 60, The Graces.

[78] The Orphic Hymns, 69, The Herinyes.

[79] The Orphic Hymns, 70, The Eumenides.

[80] The Orphic Hymns, 81, The Zephyretedes.

[81] Homer, Iliad, 12, 370-372.

[82] Homer, Iliad, 2, 362-363.

[83] Homer, Iliad, 19, 392-399.

[84] Homer, Iliad, 3, 310-313.

[85] Homer, Iliad, 5, 9-13.

[86] Homer, Iliad, 5, 364-372.

[87] Homer, Iliad, 5, 745-749.

[88] Homer, Iliad, 5, 837-839.

[89] Homer, Iliad, 5, 580-583.

[90] Homer, Iliad, 6, 17-19.

[91] Homer, Iliad, 8, 312-313.

[92] Homer, Iliad, 11, 47-52.

[93] Homer, Iliad, 11, 101-104.

[94] Homer, Iliad, 11, 273-275.

[95] Homer, Iliad, 11, 396-400.

[96] Homer, Iliad, 12, 81-87.

[97] Homer, Iliad, 16, 726-739.

[98] Homer, Iliad, 20, 460-462.

[99] Hesiod Shield of Heracles, 118-127.

[100] The Homeric Hymns, To Dionysus, 8-10.

[101] The Homeric Hymns, To Dionysus, 15-16.

[102] The Homeric Hymns, To Dionysus, 25-27.

[103] Homer, Iliad, 16, 168-172.

[104] Homer, Iliad, 8, 42-44.

[105] Homer, Odyssey, 4, 669.

[106] Homer, Iliad, 2.

[107] Homer, Iliad, 4, 391-395.

[108] Homer, Odyssey, 8, 502-503.

[109] Hesiod, Theogony, 317-318.

[110] Homer, Iliad, 4, 1-2.

[111] Homer, Iliad, 2, 86-88.

[112] Homer, Iliad, 2.

[113] Homer, Odyssey, 4, 625-629.

[114] Homer, Odyssey, 1, 225.

[115] Homer, Odyssey, 16, 247-253.

[116] Homer, Iliad, 3, 1-9.

[117] Homer, Iliad, 15, 658-659.

[118] Homer, Iliad, 17, 266-268.

[119] Mullen, B., Copper, C., The relation between group cohesiveness and performance: An integration, “Psychological Bulletin”, 1994, 115, pp. 210-227.

[120] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 281-324.

[121] Le Bon, Psychologie des foules, Presses Universitaires de France, Quadrige 1991.

[122] Papyrus Publications, Athens 1975.

[123] Liddell, H.G., Skott, A., s.v. omos, omou, oma, omose, omados, omadeuo, Great Dictionary of the Greek Language, I. Sideris Publications, Athens 1948.

[124] Homer, Iliad, 11, 126-127.

[125] Homer, Iliad, 23, 233-234.

[126] Homer, Iliad, 7, 306-307.

[127] Hesiod, Shield of Heracles, 257.

[128] Homer, Iliad, 19, 81-82.

[129] Homer, Iliad, 3, 36-37.

[130] Homer, Iliad, 19, 158.

[131] Homer, Odyssey, 1, 225.

[132] Kontos, K., Literary varieties, Vol. 1, Perri Brothers Printing Office Athens, 1889. pp. 151-186. K. Kontos (1834-1909), a distinguished Greek scholar, leader of the only literary school in Greece, Professor of Greek language in Athens University, student and co-worker of Gabriel Gobbet in Ladle, Holland.

[133] Liddell, H.G., Skott, A., Great Dictionary of the Greek Language, I. Sideris Publications, Athens 1948, p. 124.

[134] Adamantios Korais (1748-1883), (in:) K. Kontos, Literary varieties, Vol. 1, Perri Brothers Printing Office, Athens 1889, p. 158. A distinguished Greek scholar, and a great teacher of the Greek Genus, the fundamental representative of the Neohellenistic Illuminism.

[135] Kallimachus, (in:) K. Kontos, Literary varieties, Vol. 1, Perri Brothers Printing Office, Athens 1889, pp. 151-186.

[136] Hesychius, (in:) K. Kontos, Literary varieties, Vol. 1, Perri Brothers Printing Office, Athens 1889, pp. 151-186.

[137] Souidas, (in:) K. Kontos, Literary varieties, Vol. 1, Perri Brothers Printing Office, Athens 1889, pp. 151-186.

The approach of ancient Greeks to dance differed radically from the one which dominates today. The concept of dance was used in ancient Greece to convey not only rhythmical human actions but also movements of all living beings in nature. However, a single term was insufficient to describe such a multidimensional phenomenon. This was possibly the reason behind the existence of three verbs related to dance and dancing movements in the ancient Greek language: χορεύω, ορχέομαι, μέλπω. It is quite remarkable how the structural components of dance were harmonized – according to archaeological sources – into a unified organizational entity, where all dancing movements were grouped into: φορά, σχήματα, δείξις. Initially, dance had a religious character, which was developed through the ages into three discernible categories: religious dance, war dance, and cultural dance. During the geometrical era, and even more profoundly in the classical years, dance attained a particular educational value. The Athenian youth of high social classes enjoyed private lessons in dance, music, and poetry by famous dancing-masters (the so-called ορχηστοδιδασκάλους).

A great number of sources that the archaeological spade has brought into light refer to dance. These, together with written references of poets, historians and philosophers, are an irrefutable testimony of the central role of dance in cultural and religious life in ancient Greece. Especially significant is the information from Homeric works, as they include details related to singing and dancing, which all imply that dance was a crucial component of the Mycenaean civilization [1].

As indicated in the above sources, ancient Greeks’ idea about dance differed from the contemporary conception. References, like those of Euripides in “Ion” and “Bacchai” who presented the earth, the air, and the moon dancing [2], lead us to a conclusion that dance for the ancient Greeks was not just a human rhythmical activity, but it also included movements of all living beings.

This multidimensional character of dance may serve as an interpretive key for the existence of three verbs in the ancient Greek language referring to dancing: ορχέομαι (orcheomae) [3], μέλπω (melpo) [4] and χορεύω (chorevo) [5]. As early as in the 8^th century BC, in Homeric epic poems, we can come across three terms derived from the above verbs that can be translated as dance: ορχηθμός (orchethmos) [6], μολπή (molpe) [7], and χορός (choros) [8].

It is difficult to make a definite distinction between these three meanings. However, researchers could be helped by the study of ancient scripts, in which a great number of references to these three terms were made.

The word χορός for Homer represents the venue of a dancing meeting [9], but also execution of the dance and joy of the participants [10]. Furthermore, Plato in his “Laws” supports that the word χορός comes from the word χαρά (chara – joy) [11]. For him, choir-training (χορεία) embraces both dancing and singing [12], and the actual performance is an imitation of different personal characteristics, exhibited in actions and circumstances of every kind, in which several performers act their parts by habit and imitative art [13]. The most recent research into this subject has been conducted by Toelle and Wegner. Wegner agrees with everything that has been written above [14], but Toelle claims that the word χορός refers to the root χειρ (hand), and consequently to the hand movements [15]. The word ορχηθμός, is the Homeric type of the word όρχησις (orchesis) and refers to a dance movement with special characteristics and mimicry elements [16]. An example of ορχηθμός from The Odyssey 8-370 to 380, serves a useful explanation: Halius and Laodamas (Alcinous’ sons) are in the king’s palace and they are performing a dance to Odysseus and Phaiakes [17]. The two artists are playing with a ball and jump high, while the young men around them applaud rhythmically. The main components here are the game, the two dancers, and the spectators. Musical accompaniment is not considered a necessary element of ορχηθμός, as there are lines in Homeric epic poems where ορχηθμός takes place without music [18]. In a few words it can be said, that ορχηθμός is not a cyclic dance – as χορός is – but it is a physical activity consisting of rhythmic movements, which can take place without a musical accompaniment [19].

Μολπή can be regarded as dancing and singing at the same time [20]. Accor-dingly, Wegner writes that, “Probably, μολπή means the same as μέλπομαι εν χορώ, that is singing during dancing, without music instruments” [21]. If one relates the word μολπή to the verb μέλπω, he/she can see that the above interpretation is correct. According to the Lidell-Scott lexicon the word μέλπω means “to celebrate with song and dance” [22]. In the case of μολπή a dance group is also a choir, which takes care of the musical part of the dance. This view was also supported by Pindar who wrote: “And the swelling strains of song shall answer to the pipe’s reed” [23].

Furthermore, it can be noted that in ancient Greece the constituent elements of dance were harmonized into a unique combination, in which all dancing movements could have been divided into σχήματα (schemata), φορά (fora), and δείξις (deiksis).

According to Plato, the word σχήματα is the basic definition for all kinds of gestures and body postures [24]. Euripides and Aristophanes use in their works the word σχήματα with the meaning of gambols [25]. The analysis of the word σχήματα brings us to the meaning of “form, shape and figure” [26]. In relation to dance, σχήματα are clear and temporary postures and mimic movements or gestures made during dance. Some σχήματα continue just for a few seconds, while others have a longer duration. Other σχήματα can be repeated continuously to make a greater impression on the spectators.

The words φέρω (fero) and φορά have the same root. The verb φέρω in ancient Greece could have been interpreted as “to bear, convey with collateral notion of motion” [27]. According to this interpretation the word φορά could have meant the way a dancer used to ‘transport’ or ‘convey’ his body from one position to another.

As for the word δείξις, it refers to the same root as the verb δείκνυμι (deiknymi). Δείκνυμι in some cases meant ‘bring into the light, show forth, prove, offer’ [28]. Therefore the word δείξις could have meant the dancer’s representation of a man, animal or mythical being [29]. In other words, a dancer could have expressed through his dance all the characteristics of the being, or any element he possessed. In this case the main role was attributed to the dancer’s gestures, therefore he could have been called χειρόσοφος (skilled with the hands, gesticulating well).

The distinction of dance components in φορά, δείξις and σχήματα leads us to a conclusion that dance in ancient Greece was not merely a combination of steps but also a highly developed art which included a variety of theatrical and symbolic elements. The art of dance could have been considered an expression of the power of human soul, and functioned as a messenger to the spectators. The evolution and multilateralness of dance was an emanation of the unbroken relation of dance to music and song. Rhythm was a common factor and the benchmark of this unity, which remained intact until the Hellenistic age, having retained the name ορχηστική τέχνη (orchestic art, meaning the art of dancing). Terpsichore was the personification of the orchestic art, because she was considered to be the Muse of dance and choir-chants. Orchestic art included all body movements that could have expressed something. Moreck claims that orchestic art “was a science of postures and movements that taught and adjusted the beautiful postures during the sacred dances” [30].

Initially, music, song and dance in the ancient Greek world were closely related to the Olympian Gods and to every religious ceremony. They honored the Gods with processions, prayers, dances, contests, and sacrifices [31]. Later on, dance was further developed and obtained more characteristics, so that it could be divided into three major categories: religious, war, and cultural dance.

Religious dance in ancient Greece was an integral part of the ceremonies. It facilitated the believers’ introduction to the sacred secrets, prepared both soul and body to communicate with Gods during the processions to temples, and cleared the participants of human passions. It was a slow and serious dance without arm movements, mostly executed around the Gods’ altars. Such dances included Caryatids’ dance, Paian, Labyrinth, Anthema, Prosodion, and Yporchema.

War dance was, along with religious dance, one of the oldest expressions of the art of dance in general. In ancient Greece it was performed during preparation for war or athletic training. The dancers were armed and by stomping and yelling became possessed by war mania. Dances of that sort were used by Achaean aristocrats but also by the common folk in the Homeric epic poems. Characteristic examples of war dance were Pyrriche [32], Gymnopaedic orchesis, and Marches.

Cultural dance could be divided into two subcategories: a) dances of private life, and b) dances in ancient Greek dramatic art. Private life dances accompanied the citizens in their daily life. They were dances of banquets, weddings, celebrations (e.g., Epilenios orchesis, Hormos), and funerals (e.g. Threnos). Furthermore, all dances performed during athletic and music competitions can also fit this category. For example, during the Panathenaea a characteristic dance competition with prizes was known to be taking place. During the Pythian Games, which were equal to the Olympic Games, also similar music competitions were held, which included dancing [33].

Dances in ancient Greek dramatic art [34] were a valuable component and could be divided into three subcategories (as the dramatic art itself): Emmeleia was a tragedy dance, Kordax – a comedy dance, and Sikkinis – a satiric drama dance. Emmeleia had a serious and festal character and could have been easily recognized by symbolic hand and leg movements. Kordax had a comic and rude character, with vulgar movements especially of the pelvic region. Finally, Sikkinis was a dance with many springs, quick rhythm, and body rotations.

In conclusion, dance was placed among the higher arts in ancient Greece. It had been a precious and inseparable part of the Greek civilization since the Homeric ages. Dancing performances were related to a broad variety of daily, religious and cultural practices. This proves without any doubt the significance of dance in ancient Greece and justifies its use in Greek educational institutions.

The educational value of dance had been recognized by ancient Greeks since the geometric period, and it was established by ancient writers such as Lucian, who wrote in his work “The Dance”:

“Then are you willing to leave off your abuse, my friend, and hear me say something about dancing and about its good points, showing that it brings not only pleasure but benefit to those who see it; how much culture and instructions it gives; how it imports harmony into the souls of its beholders, exercising them in what is fair to see, entertaining them with what is good to hear, and displaying to them beauty of soul and body? That it does all this with the aid of music and rhythm would not be a reason to blame, but rather to praise it” [35].

From the above it can be seen that the religious experience of dance was used during the geometric age as a way of education [36]. Greek philosophers themselves considered dance to be a vital element for the harmonic evolution of man, and applauded its role in their scripts. Socrates asserted that dance exercised the whole body and balanced everything, “not like the long-distance runners, who develop their legs at the expense of their shoulders, nor like the prize-fighters, who develop their shoulders but become thin legged” [37].

Music together with dance was also used in the ancient Greek world as a basic educational tool, because it contributed to the positive use of youth’s spare time and inner cultivation. It is obvious from the study of scripts that music and dance together with sacrifices and athletic games were at that time the most characteristic aspects of a civilized society [38]. In contrast, war frenzy was accurately described by ancient Greeks using the terms ‘άχορος’ and ‘ακίθαρις’ (foe to the dance and lute) [39].

An earlier philosophical reference to the combination of dance and music comes from Plato. His works “Republic” and “Laws” make it obvious that the education of the young is directly related to dance and ode [40]. For Plato, dance and music contribute effectively to people’s character configuration and integration. In his ideal world, society preserves dance and music as the main ways of educating the youth. Dance and music were used to shape young men’s character and to help them achieve free citizen’s consciousness [41]. It seems that the realization of a good citizen was possible through music, song and performance of particular dances. For the young the aim of the dancing art was to imitate the older citizens and try and be equal to them.

According to Aristotle, music “influence reaches also in a manner to the character and to the soul” [42]. Plato considers dance a God’s gift, and him who has not been trained in the chorus an uneducated and uncultivated person [43]. He points out that the knowledge of dance contributed to the harmonic movement of the body [44]. Harmony and rhythm in dance were the vehicles of the character, because they were imitations of movements characterized by specific virtues and sentimental situations [45]. Plato suggests that the best time to begin one’s body training be the 6^th year of life, whereas Aristotle the 5^th year. With regard to warrior training Plato asserted the following in his “Republic”:

“What, then, is our education? Or is it hard to find a better than which long time has discovered? Which is, I suppose, gymnastics for the body and music for the soul” [46].

During the Greek classical ages the ideal citizen was the so-called καλοκάγαθος (kalokagathos) – a human being cultivated equally spiritually and physically. “Kalos he was the pride and joy of Athens and agathos a virtuous and noble” [47]. For this purpose ancient Athenians utilized the orchestic art for the education of the young.

“In ancient Greece dance possessed, at least until the Hellenistic ages, the central role in the process of the education. The Greeks intended it an attainment of a physical and spiritual harmony, and placed dance as a harmonic development of the body and cultivation of aesthetic kinetic forms” [48].

According to Schwikowski, the dancing festivals were schools of good manners, while the images of dancers served as models of nobility and morality to the youth [49]. Thereby the Athenian youth of high social classes enjoyed private dance, as well as music and poetry lessons by famous teachers [the so-called ορχηστοδιδασκάλους (orchestodidaskalous) – dancing-masters].

Consequently, the educational properties of dance influenced all the city-states in ancient Greece. By common acceptance, dance became necessary for the evolution of the self, and prepared young men to fight. For example, the war dance Pyrrhiche was a very important part of martial training. As Klein mentions, “Dance with its physical training functioned also as a war preparation” [50]. In Sparta and Crete, girls of all social classes – regardless of the hierarchical structure of society – enjoyed dance lessons [51].

“The truth of the matter is that the main body of the Athenian educational system as the educational system of all Greek cities consisted of gymnastics and music; the addition to it of a wider ‘grammatical’ education did not change its basic nature. The essential difference between the Athenian and the Spartan systems lay in the aims of education of the young and character both of the physical exercise and the musical training. The difference in education in the two cities was also determined by the atmosphere in which it was practiced, by the institutions that defined it, and by the social conditions that shaped it over the long period in which it was adopted” [52].

In Sparta they used to call upon the χορολυρικοί (teachers of the orchestic art) from all over Greece since the 8^th century BC, to compose tunes and teach group dances to the young people. Such composers included Terpandros, Thaletas, Alkmanas and Polymnestos.

The art of dance occupied a prestigious position in the cultural life of ancient Greece. The Greeks loved Terpsichore, the Muse of orchestic art, and honored her through a variety of dances, dedicated to the Olympian Gods, but also to other minor gods they used to worship. During the great athletic and cultural festivals, dances had their own unique place. Ancient Greek philosophers recognized the educational value of dance and for that reason it was performed as a daily routine in the Gymnasiums of all big Greek cities of that era. In conclusion, it can be said that dance characterized the entire ancient Greek world, expressed a harmonic union of the perishable and the imperishable, and constituted an inspirational starting point for the western Renaissance and European classic dance, as well as a pattern for the renewal of modern dance and deliberating spirit.

[1] Lawler, B. L., The dance in ancient Greece, Adams and Charles Black, London 1964, p. 51.

[2] “One dancing-band shall be all the land” (Euripides, Bacchai 114); “when dances heaven star-glancing Adoringly, when the white moon is dancing” (Euripides, Ion 1079-80).

[3] Herodotus 6.129; Homer, Odyssey, 8-371; Lucian, The Dance, 11.

[4] Homer, Iliad, I 474; Euripides, Bacchai 155; Aristophanes, Thespophoriazusae, 989.

[5] Sophocles, Ajax, 701; Aristophanes, Plutus, 288 and 761; Herodotus 1.191.

[6] Homer, Odyssey, 23-134; Homer, Iliad, XIIV, 637.

[7] Homer, Odyssey, 6-101; Homer, Iliad, XVIII, 606.

[8] Homer, Odyssey, 8-260 and 12-318; Homer, Iliad, XV, 508.

[9] Homer, Odyssey, 8-260 and 12-318; Homer, Iliad, XVIII, 590, XXIV, 261. See also Pausanias’ reference to the Spartan market-place, where the Spartans displayed images of Apollo Pythaeus, of Artemis and of Leto, and called the whole region χορός (Pausanias III 11, 9).

[10] Homer, Odyssey, 8-248 and 18-194; Homer, Iliad, XVI, 180 / XV, 508 / III, 393-4.

[11] Plato, Laws, 654a. The conjunction between χορός and joy is mentioned also by Aristophanes (Plutus, 288 and 761), Sophocles (Ajax, 701) and Herodotus (1.191).

[12] Plato, Laws, 654b.

[13] Plato, Laws, 655d.

[14] Wegner, M., Musik und Tanz (Music and Dance), (in:) Archaeologia Homerica, Bd. 3 Kapitel U, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Goettingen 1968, p. 40.

[15] Toelle, R., Fruegriechische Reigentaenze (Early Greek Dances), Stiftland, Waldsassen/Bayern 1964, p. 56.

[16] Homer, Odyssey, 23-134 till 135 and 8-253; Homer, Iliad, XVIII, 594. See also Herodotus 6.129. According to Toelle, the word ορχηθμός is related to the word ορχηδόν, meaning ‘to put things in a row’ (Toelle, Fruegriechische Reigentaenze, 1964, p. 66).

[17] Homer, Odyssey, 8-370: “Then Alcinous made Halious and Laodamas dance alone”. About this particular scene, see also Laser [Laser, Sport und Spiel, Sport and Game (in:) Archaeologia Homerica, Kapitel T, Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, Goettingen 1987, p. 91f.].

[18] Homer, Odyssey, 8-253; Homer, Iliad, XVIII, 593-4.

[19] Homer, Odyssey, 8-260 to 262, refers to φόρμιγξ (lyre) as musical accompaniment to χορός: “They leveled a place for the dance, and marked out a fair wide ring, and the herald came near, bearing the clear-toned lyre for Demodocus. He then moved into the midst”.

[20] Homer, Odyssey, 4-19 and 6-101; Homer, Iliad, I , 472 / XVIII, 572.

[21] Wegner, Musik und Tanz, 1968, p. 42.

[22] Lidell, H.G., Scott, R., Greek-English Lexicon, Clarendon Press, Oxford 1973, lemma μέλπω.

[23] Pindar, Olympian Odes,10.84.

[24] Plato, Laws, 655a-b. The same is claimed by Socrates (see Xenophon, Symposium II 15).

[25] Euripides, Cyclops, 221; Aristophanes, Peace, 323.

[26] Lidell-Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 1973, lemma σχήμα.

[27] Lidell-Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 1973, lemma φέρω. The same meaning of φέρω is used by Xenophon: “the north wind carries one out of the Euxine to Greece” (Xenophon, Anabasis 5, 7.7), and by Homer: “and his swift feet bore him on” (Homer, Iliad, VI, 514).

[28] Lidell-Scott, Greek-English Lexicon, 1973, lemma δείκνυμι.

[29] Lawler, The dance in ancient Greece, 1984, p. 27.

[30] Moreck, K., ed., Der Tanz in der Kunst. Die bedeutendsten Tanzbilder von der Antike bis zur Gegenwart (The dance in art. The most important dance representations from antiquity till present), Walter Seifert, Stuttgart/Heilbronn 1924, p. 145.

[31] See also W. Burkert, Griechische Religion der archaischen und klassische Epoche (Greek Religion. Archaic and Classical), Kohlhammer, Stuttgart/Berlin/Koeln/Mainz, 1977, p. 490.

[32] For further information on Pyrriche, see also Plato, Laws, 815a.

[33] Mouratidis claims that this kind of competitions were the only performances which took place during the Pythian Games before 590 BC (see I. Mouratidis, Ιστορία Φυσικής Αγωγής (History of Physical Education), Christodoulidi, Thessaloniki, 1990, p. 219).

[34] It is known that the ancient Greek dramatic art was developed through the dances of Dionysus’ worship. Initially, the Greeks worshiped Dionysus by way of yells and arrhythmic movements, which were then developed into rhythmic dances and songs, the so-called Dithyramb. Kordatos claims that the funeral Dithyramb was the first form of tragedy, while the cheerful Dithyramb was the primary form of comedy [see G. Kordatos, Η αρχαία τραγωδία και κωμωδία. Ποιες είναι οι κοινωνικές ρίζες του αρχαίου ελληνικού θεάτρου (The ancient tragedy and comedy. The social roots of the ancient Greek theater), Mpoukoumanis, Athens 1974, p. 52].

[35] Lucian, The Dance, 6.

[36] Plato writes that, “The gods, in pity for the human race thus born to misery, have ordained the feasts of thanksgiving as periods of respite from their troubles; and they have granted them as companions in their feasts the Muses and Apollo the master of music, and Dionysus, that they may at least set right again their modes of discipline by associating in their feasts with gods” (Plato, Laws, 653d).

[37] Xenophon, Symposium, II, 17.

[38] Homer, Iliad, XI, 97-103 and 246-253; Aeschylus, Suppliant, 667-697; Pindar, Pythian Odes, 5.66; Aristophanes, Frogs, 729; Plato, Laws, 830e.

[39] Aeschylus, Suppliant, 681; Euripides, Phoenician, 784-791.

[40] Plato, Laws, 672e; Plato, Republic, 411e-412a.

[41] Mullen writes about this: “Here the three choruses in Laws II, of boys, of men and of elders may illustrate the characteristic Greek way of thinking about the matter. A chorus made up of boys will be involved in an educational process in the most literal sense, and hence their essential means of becoming such. A chorus made up of men will present a somewhat different spectacle, that of men actualizing what in boys is still potential and thus (to continue playing with the later philosophical language) making visible to each other the essence of what it is to be free” (W. Mullen, Choreia: Pindar and Dance, Princeton, New Jersey 1982, p. 55).

[42] Aristotle, Politics, 1340a.

[43] Plato, Laws, 654a-b: “Shall we assume that the uneducated man is without choir-training, and the educated man fully choir-trained?... So the well-educated man will be able both to sing and dance well”.

[44] Plato, Laws, 795d-e.

[45] Plato, Republic, 399a-c, 399e-400a; Plato, Laws, 654e-655d, 660a, 668a-670c, 798d, 812c.

[46] Plato, Republic, 376e. See also Plato, Laws, 795d-e.

[47] Yalouris, N., ed., Athletics in Ancient Greece. Ancient Olympia and the Olympic Games, Εkdotiki Athinon, Athens 1976, p. 54.

[48] Klein, G., FrauenKoerperTanz. Eine Zivilisationsgeschichte des Tanzes (WomenBodyDance. A cultural history of dance), Quadriga, Weinheim/Berlin 1988, p. 27.

[49] Schwikowski, J., Geschichte des Tanzes (History of Dance), Buechergilde Gutenberg, Berlin 1926, p. 27.

[50] Klein, FrauenKoerperTanz, 1988, p. 27. See also A. Raftis, Ο κόσμος του ελληνικού χορού (The world of Greek dance), Polytypo, Athens 1985, p. 27.

[51] Klein, FrauenKoerperTanz, 1988, p. 22.

[52] Yalouris, N., ed., Athletics in Ancient Greece, 1976, p. 52.

Agon (God of Competition). A four-drachma coin from 520-480 BC, from the island of Peparethon (Fig. 1) (present-day Skopelos). It depicts a naked athlete, the god Agon [10]. He has wings on his shoulders and ankles, significant of his supernatural – metaphysical element; he is running and holding two wreaths in his hands, aiming to meet the competitors and let goddess Nike crown them.

The god’s body is well built, obedient to the needs of exercise and competition [11]. According to N. Nisiotis [12], “beneath the relation of religious adoration and competition, the godified nature is hidden, in which the human body participates as its choised species”.

The ancient Greek intellect godified the struggling effort of man, through space and time, to be able to converse consciously. This was verified by the philosopher Loggine (the god planted in our souls the love of competition…) [13]. The coin, we are referring to, is in the London British Museum.

A similar representation of god Agon comes from an offering to the sanctuary of Olympia, being a work of the sculptor Mikythos [14]. The god appears here as a pentathlete holding dumbbells in his hands.

The figures of Agon and Nike had already appeared on coins since the 6^th century BC [15].

Nike. A silver four-drachma coin from the 5^th century BC (Fig. 2), from ancient Elis, depicting the goddess Nike as a successful outcome of the competition (Agon) [16] (currently in the Coin Museum of Athens). Ancient Elis was the capital of Elia and the first ancient Olympic village in history of athletics. It was the homeland of the Hellanodikes [Judges]. This was a place where all athletes should gather in order to participate, thirty days before the Olympic Games [17]. The goddess Nike, as depicted on the coin, is holding in her right hand a “kotinon”, a wild-olive branch wreath, meaning to award the winner of the game; she has wings on her shoulders, signifying her metaphysical nature, and she is striding towards the contest area. To her right and left side, the letters of her origin, FA (FALION – people of Elis) can be seen. It is not accidental that victory is represented by a woman, and is given to a man – the winner. It is due to the patriarchal structure as well as to the woman's preference of the most capable man, i.e. a man capable to distinguish himself and procreate.

According to Greek mythology, Nike was a daughter of Zeus. He held her in his right hand and used to give her to the athlete he liked best, the one who distinguished himself for his virtue [18]! The subordinate side of the coin depicted an eagle rushing down and devouring its prey.

Wrestling. The wrestling contest – although considered to be the earliest in ancient Greek fighting tradition, because it symbolically expressed the human effort to expand the civilization range [19] – appeared in the men’s program of the Ancient Olympic Games only during the 18th Olympiad, in 708 BC, as an independent event and part of the Pentathlon (running, jumping, discus and javelin throwing, wrestling).

The stater (359-323 BC [20]) originated [21] from the Argeian colony of Aspendos, by the Eurymedon river, close to the Asiatic city of Perge, where a spectacular stadium was discovered. The coin (Fig. 3) depicts two naked athletes in an arm-lock. On the subordinate side of the stater the god Eros is portrayed as the protector of gymnastics, gymnasts, and gymnastic institutions. There is also a dressed figure, probably of a young girl, trying on a sphendone, and another one running in the background.

Discus throwing. Discus throwing as an independent competition has been known since the Mycenean period, from Homeric epics [22]. It was introduced in the Olympic program as a part of the ancient pentathlon, during the 18th Olympiad in 708 BC.

The style of discus throwing is shown on coins, vase-paintings, and is described in “Icons” by Philostratus [23]. On the silver four-drachma coin from the 5th century BC (Fig. 4) a naked discus thrower is portrayed at the moment of the throw. The depiction resembles Philostratus' description. The perimeter features the inscription “KOS”. On the side of the discus-thrower there is a tripod, which represents the prize given to the winners of the games of Tropios Apollo [24], in Knidos, where the center of the Doric Pentapolis was located. The subordinate side of the coin features a crab being the symbol of the city [25].

Tethrippon. Thethrippon was a chariot drawn by four horses. As an event it was introduced in the Olympia hippodrome during the 25th Olympiad in 680 BC. The silver four-drachma coin from the 5th century (Fig. 5) from Acragas – a Greek colony in Sicily – presents a four-horse chariot driven by a charioteer, while a preceding eagle – the messenger of Zeus – is symbolically leading to victory. Between the eagle and the horses there is the inscription “ACRAGAS”, certifying the origin of the coin. On the other side of the coin there are two eagles, one of which is devouring a hare [26].

Apene. Apene is a chariot drawn by two mules [27]. The apene, known from the Mycenean era, was also called synoris [28].

It seems that in Elis the mule had always been a cursed animal. As Pausanias informs us, “...then they said that the fact that mares could get pregnant by donkeys not in the territory of Elis, but out of it, it was due to some kind of curse” [29].

The wise Hellanodikes (the Judges), in order to remove this misfortune from their country, introduced Apene–Synoris as an Olympic hippodromic event, during the 70th Olympiad in 500 BC Along the gradual appearance of mules in the games, the conscientious curse faded away.

Fig. 6 presents a silver four-drachma coin from the 5^th BC, from Messina, a Greek colony in Sicily. It shows a chariot drawn by two mules. The charioteer is hol-ding the reins and a cane. On the periphery of the coin and above the mules, there is the inscription “MESSINA” indicating the place of coin origin. On the base there are two dolphins, symbols of Poseidon (or Neptune), the protector of chariot-races [30].

Synoris. Synoris is a chariot drawn by two horses. It is said that King Philip II of Macedonia used to “engrave chariot victories at Olympia on coins” [31] and circulate these coins in his kingdom, thus highlighting the spread of the Olympic ideology in association with the Panhellenic Ideal cultivated in Olympia [32].

After his Olympic victory in horse riding at the Olympic hippodrome in 356 BC, Phillip had an analogous coin struck. He repeated the same in 352 BC, when his synoris won the first Olympic victory. He then issued a golden stater (Fig. 7), which depicted a synoris chariot with the charioteer holding a cane and the reins of the two horses in motion. On the bottom there is the inscription “OF PHILIP”. The subordinate side of the coin featured the head of the god Apollo, wearing a laurel wreath [33].

Contrary to Phillip II, his son Alexander the Great was very selective with regard to any competition for fame. Once, when his friends asked him if he would like to participate in the stadion (192.27 meters) race – as he was a fast runner himself – he answered in regal pride: “I would do it, if my competitors were kings” [34].

Horse-riding. Ancient Olympic events involving horses were horse riding and chariot driving. Horse riding was introduced into the Olympic program during the 33rd Olympiad, in 648 BC. The Hippodrome was a place where mostly the upper class, kings, rulers, and generals participated in the games, because they were rich enough to keep chariots and horses. It is said that King Philip II of Macedonia after his conquest of the city of Potidaia in 356 BC, received three pleasing messages at the same time a) that the Illyrians were beaten in a great battle by General Parmenion; b) that his contesting horse won the riding competition in Olympia; and c) that his son Alexander was born. And as he was rejoicing, the soothsayers predicted that his child would become invincible, because he was born at the time of three important victories [35]. In commemoration of the horse-riding victory in the Olympic Hippodrome, during the 106th Olympiad in 356 BC, he issued a series of coins depicting hippodromic events. One of those coins is the silver four-drachma (Fig. 8). On the obverse a young man is engraved, holding a branch, probably of a palm tree, with the inscription around “OF PHILIP”. The reverse features the head of Zeus of Olympia crowned with a “kotinon”, a wreath made of a wild olive tree branch [36].

Hoplite race. The hoplite race was first introduced during the 65th Olympiad in 520 BC, and it was established by the Hellanodikes as the last of the Olympic events, in order to make the representatives of the city states think they preferred the deeds of Peace to the deeds of War [37].

The amber stater in Fig. 9 comes from Kyzikos, an ancient city in Propontis, from about 480-440 BC. It shows a hoplite-runner on the hysplix or the starting line. His feet are placed on the starting point, the gravity center of his body is low, with his right arm extended. In his left hand he is holding a circular shield and he is ready to go. He is wearing a helmet. The latter was later removed and only the shield remained in the runner's hands, thus the race was then called the “shield” event [38].

The distance of the hoplite-race was equal to two diavlos (4 X 192.27), about 800m (similar to a riding stadium) [39].

One of most famous hoplite-runners was Leonidas of Rhodes “Triastes”, who won in four Olympiads, in the 154^th, 155^th, 156^th, and 157^th (164, 160, 156, 152 BC) each time in three events: stadium, diavlos, and hoplite races, winning in total twelve Olympic wreaths [40].

Prize-table. A copper coin from the Roman era (3^rd century AD), from Anchialos (Fig. 10), pictures a table serving as a base for the winners’ prizes. Specifically, it depicts a case with a prize-branch in it. This idea had originated from an ancient Olympic ritual and was performed especially during the Roman Era. It consisted of crowning of the Olympic winners in the pronaos of the temple of Zeus in Olympia, on the last day of the games. In the pronaos of the temple the archaeologists found a flat surface paved with six-cornered stabs of marble, where the table of “Hippodameia” was placed, with the “kotini” (wreaths) used for the crowning of the Olympic winners. This was the place where the elder Hellanodikes crowned the winners [41].

Mythology was an endless source of inspiration for the ancient engravers. It was natural for the ancient Greeks, devoted as they were to their gods and to the athletic dimension, to draw figures and scenes from mythology, and thus establishing permanent coin motifs.

The coin, in the broader meaning of the word, means strength, because it solves almost all human problems. The coins from the Greek territory were known for their reliability and were in circulation in all Greek cities [42]. For instance, the Aeginaeon from the island of Aegina, was introduced all over Peloponnesus, Beotia, North Greece, Thessaly, Crete, etc. Attic coins were in circulation all over Attica, Corinth, Sicily and Western Greece [43].

The coins of the Macedonian dynasty were also directly influenced by the Olympic ideology [44]. Philip II's participation in the Olympic Games reveals that he was a follower of the Panhellenic Idea and, most importantly, the Olympic Idea.

The coins issued by Alexander the Great, as carriers of Greek civilization, with Greek inscriptions and themes, would become the main international coins in the later centuries, and they would serve undeniable models for the Eastern populations in the quest of their identity.

The spread of Greek civilization, through the colonies to every corner of the Mediterranean world, from the Iberian Peninsula to Crimea, was analogous to the spread and use of the coins. To a great extent, that process was due to the untamed energy of the Greeks.

Yet, it was not only the diverse ancient populations that imitated or got inspired by the themes of the ancient Greek coins. In more recent times, the European kingdoms, nurtured in the classical ideas and – naturally – the Greek states, drew on the ancient Greek works in the inspiration for illustration of their coins.

In our days, coins are still used in the civilized world. Quite unaware of the fact the Greeks and Lydians offered mankind a new god “Mammon” [45], who was destined to incarnate all religions, and to travel ageless through the pages of world history [46].

The coins circulated by the newly–established Greek State since 1834, have been directly influenced by the morphology of the ancient coins. The “Euro” coin, in circulation today in the most of Europe, features the owl on one side – a symbol of Attica and Goddess Athena. The medals awarded at the athletic games – some of them in the Olympic Games – since 1896, are aesthetically influenced mostly by the athletic events of Greek antiquity. The medals of the Olympic Games in Athens 2004 will depict the Panathinaikon Stadium (150 AD) and the statue of “Nike of Peonios” (420 BC).

Coins have been proven to be the most solid means of interchange, communication and civilization, a means of social and economic development of cities and people, but also a form of mobile advertisement in the hands of those who can manipulate this magic phenomenon.

And, as Plutach informs us, a city without coins is a city without prestige [47].

[1] Laschhorn, W., Griechische Agone in Macedonien und Thrakien, Ihre Verbreitung und potisch – religiose….Stefanos Nomismatikos, Berlin 1988, 399-415, see Lennsperger D., Olympischer Wettkampt: Sportdarsteblungen auf antiken Munzen und Medalien Ausstellunqszeihe der Universitat Tubingen 1984, Balasiadis, C., Coins and Games, Hellicon editions, Athens 2002, 8-9. Also see P. R. Franke The coins: mirror of the life of Greeks, (in:) Asia Minor in the Roman times, Educational Institution of the National Bank of Greece, Athens 1985, 97-99 No 242-255.

[2] Plato’s City B’ 371b, Aristotle Ethics N.5.5, 14, Politics 1.9, 9.

[3] C.I.G. Sept. No 270, Aeschyl. Agam. 36-37, Aristoph. Birds 1106, Polyd. IX 74-86, see, Von Kurt Regling, Die Antike Munze Als Kunstewerk Berlin 1924, Tafel II, No 39.

[4] Iscrip. Delos 1443, A,II 63, see Polyd. ΙΧ 60, Aristoph. Frogs 721.

[5] Herod. 1.94 3. 56 4. 166 6. 127, Ephor. By Stravo 8. 376.

[6] Plutarch, Artax. 20. 3-4, see Aelian P.H. 10, and Polyd. IX 83-87.

[7] I. G. I³ 383, 17-18, 43-44, 110-111, see Herod. 7. 28 Thouk 8.28.

[8] Smith, W., Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities Athens 1860. Words “νόμισμα” p. 651-662, “στατήρ” p. 908-911 and “σταθμά” p. 900.

[9] Lysias, Olymp. speech 2-3.

[10] Regling, as above, fig. al, see 1924, tafel VII, No 190, E.N. Gardiner, Athletics of the ancient world, Oxford, 1930, 66, gig a, see J.H.S. XXVII, pl. IV 1.

[11] Lucian, About Gymnastics § 25, see § 24.

[12] J.O.A. Records: article about “Olympism and Religion”, 12th Congress, 1976, Athens 1976, p. 65.

[13] Anonymous – Logginos – Dionysos, About Height, 35,2, see Philostr., Gymn. 7.

[14] Pausan, V.20, 3, see 26,2.

[15] Regling, 1924, as ab. Tafel VII, No 190, XI, pp. 250, 252, 256, 262-265.

[16] Gardiner, 1930, as ab., p. 66. No c΄, see Kl. Palaiologos, History of the Olympic Games, Athens Publishing Company, 1976, 133, Coins and Coinage, ed., Ministry of Culture. Coin Museum of Athens, 1996, 43. Other forms of goddess Nike from the 6th century BC: Regling, as ab. tafel XXXVI No 747.

[17] Philostr., The life of Apollonios Tyaneus, Book V, ch. 43.

[18] Hesiod, Theog., 383 N. Yalouris, History of the Olympic Games, Athens Publishing Company 1976, 103, reproduction of the gold-and-ivory statue by Phydias.

[19] Plutarch, Probl. IV, Ethics 368. 20-23c.

[20] Gardiner, P., Types of Greek Coins, Cambridge 1883, 144 pict. 28, tafel IV, Gardiner, 1930, 66, see Regling, No 747.

[21] Mylonas, P., The Stadiums, Athens 1952, p. 26, pict. 7.

[22] Iron or bronze disk, Iliad, B. 774, Ψ. 826,839, stone disc, Odyssey, δ. 626, θ. 186.

[23] Philostr., pictures, 24, see Hesych. w. “άνδικε”.

[24] The tripod as a prize: Iliad Ψ 264, 485, 513, 702, 718, Λ 700, about Triopio, Homer, Hymns 3.211, Herod, I. 144, Pausan, IV 1, 13.

[25] Gardiner, 1930, 66, J.H.S. XXVII, p. 30, Regling, Tafel XIII No 287, 310: at 480-440 BC, see Coins and Coinage 1996, 151.

[26] Regling, 1924 tafel XXIV, No 532, also XVIII No 398, 399, 403, 406, see also coin depicting Zeus holding an eagle on his right hand: tafel XXXIX, No 815.

[27] Pindar, 0.5.6. p. 4.166.

[28] Iliad Ω 324, Odys. ζ 57, 72-73.

[29] Pausanias, V 5,2, see 9,2 see N. Papahatzis, Elian 1965, 226, not. 1.

[30] Balasiadis, C., Coins and Games, Athens 2002, 29, see Regling, 1924, tafel XI N 262, 263.

[31] Plutarch, Alex, 4.

[32] de Rider, G., Philip King of Macedonia, Publishing Company of Athens, Athens 1980, p. 50A.

[33] Plutarch: Alex, 3, See Philip King of Macedonia, p. 51. The coin is today in the Coin Museum of Athens.

[34] Plutarch: Alex, as ab., see Chrys. Balasiadis, Athens 2002, pp. 22-23.

[35] Plutarch,: Alex, 3.

[36] de Rider, G., Philip of Macedonia, Publishing Company of Athens, Athens 1980, 50. Coin Museum of Athens.

[37] Plutarch, proplem E. I, see Philostr. Gymn. 33.

[38] Pausanias, VI 10,4, see Chrys. Balasiadis, Athens 2002, pp. 26-27.

[39] Pausanias, VI 16,4, Philostr. Gymn. 7, and Regling, tafel XIII No 921.

[40] Pausanias, VI 13,4.

[41] Pausanias, V 20,1, see Balasiadis, 2002, p. 35.

[42] Touratoglou, J., Coins and Coinage, as ab., p. 119.

[43] Smith, W., Dictionary of Greek Archaeology, Athens 1860, N: “Νόμισμα”, p. 659.

[44] Coins and Coinage, as ab., p. 85, 114, Alexander III appears as Zeus at Olympia.

[45] New Testament: Mathew 6.24, Luc. 16,9,11,13.

[46] Coins and Coinage, ed., Ministry of Culture, Coin Museum of Athens, Athens 1996, 8, greeting by Melina Mercuri.

[47] Plutarch, Ethics, 6.1162d.

Figure 1

Figure 2

Figure 3

Figure 4

Figure 5

Figure 6

Figure 7

Figure 8

Figure 9

Figure 10

Rivalry in battle, knights’ tournaments, and bouts of famous fencers representing the techniques and tactics of outstanding fencing schools (Italian and French), greatly contributed to the conversion of the art of arms wielding to the modern sport. The reduction of the arms weight (e.g. lighter blades) and introduction of new types of fencing weapons (rapier, sword, foil) and the facemask (c. 1780) was conductive to such a conversion. Before 1939, Polish fencing was influenced by the Italian, French, Wiener-Neustadt, and Hungarian fencing schools. The last two exerted the most considerable impact.

In the course of time fencing has changed its character – from the art of arms wielding to the modern sport. This process was spurred by international competition, rivalry between different fencing schools (French and Italian in particular), and development of other sports. Various changes affected fencing techniques, tactics, fight styles, methods, forms, and training organization. They were mainly introduced at the turn of the 19^th and 20^th century, although the first signals for change appeared much earlier [7].

Initially, sword fights were dominated by force and brutality (e.g., “pommel hits” into the opponent’s face). The rapier, which was lighter than the sword, allowed for a more rapid fencing play and gradual introduction of the on guard position with the right offensive foot forward [21]. In the 16^th and 17^th centuries Italy became the cradle of modern rapier fencing. In the mid-17^th century a new kind of arms originated from the light rapier (meant only for aggressive play) – the court sword, suitable for aggressive and defensive play. Training with such a weapon was dangerous, and was soon followed by the introduction of the fencing foil, which provided the basis for court sword fights. Around the mid-18^th century, a sport- and recreation-oriented fencing trends were formed, characterized by conventional training and bouts, and the beauty of positions and moves. Numerous innovations in sword and foil were developed in the 17^th and 18^th centuries by the famous French masters.

The introduction of the fencing mask by La Boissiere (c. 1780) was a turning point in the development of the sport.

Precision, correctness of moves, and even its characteristic artificiality were clear advantages of the 19^th-century foil training. Many hits were gained by the riposte and the counter riposte. The end of the 19^th century saw the introduction of the plays of second intention, various forms of “fencing time plays”, analysis of different aspects of shock tactics (“fencing time”), tactical training, etc. The foil regulations, modified in 1902 in France, restricted the exaggerated conventional principles, bringing rivalry closer to the conditions of a real fight [5, 9].

The epee was introduced to the fencing sport in the 1890s, much later than the foil by Ambroise Baudry, a Parisian fencing master. It had a protected blade but it was still similar to the duel sword. The rules of epee fencing fulfilled duel conditions, and there were no conventional ruled applied (right of priority of some plays). By 1910 the piste length had been extended to 10 meters. It was however still impossible to reach the opponent in one lunge. For this purpose the two-tact attack and the so-called flèche were developed. The further extension of the piste length to 34 meters and the diversification of hits contributed not only to legwork modifications, but also preceded the spread of sport fencing worldwide. In the late 1920s the precedence of hits in epee fights – according to regulations – depended on the time of hit delivery. Hits then had been applied in order to disintegrate the opponent’s moves. The fear of unexpected attacks brought up a dispute about distance regulations in each type of weapon. This ended the so-called play of blades and resulted in ordinary “tagging”. The blade, which was suddenly thrown forward, especially in epee fights, caused injuries. A trident blade end adopted in the early 1920s was to eliminate such cases.

Refereeing based on the classic combined systems became less useful and was replaced by the electrical scoring apparatus. It was used for the first time during a fencing contest in Geneva in 1931. The obligatory application of this equipment was first commissioned at the European Championships in Warsaw in 1934. The introduction of the electrical scoring apparatus enhanced further development of fencing [4, 8, 25].

In Poland, in the years 1918-1939, the epee was not that popular. It was outranked by the sabre and the foil in the Italian version.

The military sabre wasfirst designed for mounted fights, and then for infantry usage. In the second half of the 19^th century the fencing master Gioseppe Radelli introduced the so-called light sabre (800 grams) to the duel, and later to sport fencing. Thanks to it the fencers were able to perform faster and more precise moves. Loosening and fastening of moves made the application of more precise parries and pre-cuts much easier, especially into the opponent's arm [18]. The “brandishing” (exaggerated leading of the sabre from the elbow with intense swings) of the classic Italian school was replaced by the modern Hungarian school, which expanded the techniques of the sabre leading, cut dealing, cut downs, feints, and other manual actions. This all increased the rapidity and precision of arms mastering. Constant mobility allowed to keep the opponent at a long distance in order to perform sudden attacks at a convenient moment. These were mainly the fleche attacks, being generally single attacks, or preceded by one or two feints [6].

Fencing styles in Poland in the years 1918-1939 remained under the influence of the Italian, French, Wiener-Neustadt and Hungarian schools. As a result, the technique was simplified, the action became more rapid, and much more attention was paid to the pre-cut, fleche attacks, and fleche riposte.

The Italian school wascharacterised by belligerence (greater than in the French school) and vigorous moves. The on guard position was wider, with the legs considerably bent, the trunk sideways towards the opponent, the armed shoulder almost in line position. The steps and lunges were performed in a vigorous but somehow stiff way. The parries were received with the firm turn of the forearm and hands in the turned away position. In fighting, a lot of actions on the blade, counter-attacks, as well as remises and reprises were performed. Leap and lunge attacks were often applied as well. In defence, five parries were performed (1, 2, 3, 4, 5); mostly 1, 2, 5 were used. Plays of second intention and faint counter-attacks were also used.

The French school attached most importance to the dexterity of the art of arms wielding with the aid of precise finger manipulation. The shoulder in aggressive play was excessively straightened; faint plays were performed, resulting in a very efficient deception of the opponent's hits. Eight parries were used (4, 7, 8 introduced at the beginning of 18^th century; 6, 2, 3, 1, 5 with the hand in a conversed position). A long and speedy lunge at the end of play was a peculiarity of this school.

The Hungarian school also exerted a great influence on the development of Polish fencing at the beginning of the 20^th century. It was based on the Italian system and was created by Italian fencing master Italo Santelli as well as by other Italian masters and officers – graduates of the Viennese Fencing Academy in Wiener-Neustadt who had settled in Hungary. They discovered that leading the blade using the elbow-joint brings about a threat of receiving a hit to the forearm, arm, and parts of the face. In consequence, they started to lead the arms synchronizing the elbow and the wrist. As a result, the moves became smoother, softer, and more elastic. This created an opportunity to expand the range of tactics. The main parries were tierce, quarte, and quinte. The on guard position, based on slight leg movements, made the piste bouts more dynamic than ever before. The Hungarians paid great attention to the shock tactic, and they employed it quite frequently. Before 1928, a modification in the Hungarian sabre system appeared – the flèche attack. This amendment was influenced by the inhibition of the hitherto popular back jump and introduction of the shock-attack factor in the legwork (the attacker's charge following the opponent's commencement, before the latter has stopped his leg movement) [19, 27].

The Austrian Imperial-Royal Military Institute of Fencing and Gymnastics Teachers Training (K. Und Militär Fecht und Turlehreinstitut) in Wiener-Neustadt made also a significant contribution to Polish and Hungarian fencing. Colonel Aleksander Czajkowski was a commanding officer of this school in the years 1895-1903. Among 600 graduates of that school – fencing masters in the Austro-Hungarian armed forces – were Eugeniusz Linneman (graduated in 1893; he worked in Cracovian clubs until 1939) [1, 24], Leopold Targler (worked at the Central Military School of Gymnastics and Sports in Poznan), Leopold Sedlaczek [24], Karol Stritesky [11], Antoni Bąkowski, and Bela Szombathely (graduated in 1914) [2].

The Wiener-Neustadt school exerted a great influence on the teaching methods, techniques, tactics, etc. not only in Austria but also in many European countries, including Hungary, Germany, and Poland. The school was founded by Luigi Barbasetti, who put the Italian fencing system into effect and enriched it with his own experience.

The Austrian impact in the sabre fighting manner was reduced in the 1930s under the influence of the Hungarian school (finger and wrist movements in sabre leading, softness of moves, introduction of the fleche, etc.). In foil, the tendencies molded in Wiener-Neustadt slowly disappeared. There were also some noticeable impacts of the Italian school. Updated techniques, tactics, ways of fighting, and methods of teaching were taken from the other schools (e.g. the French school).

The Wiener-Neustadt graduates retained some elements of the old Italian school, such as “stiffness” of sense-moving tricks in the fencing technique, which consisted of invariable (despite changing situations during a fight) performances of certain plays.

In Z. Czajkowski's opinion, “The relatively late introduction of the epee in Poland (and Hungary) is also a remnant of the impact of the Wiener-Neustadt school, where Luigi Barbasetti had taught only two kinds of arms – foil and sabre” [6]. The emergence of anatomical grips changed the manner of fencing (ways of holding, leading, hitting, parrying and blade attacks). It also impinged on fencing in Poland as a whole.

Beside the foreign schools (Italian, French, German, Wiener- Neustadt), also the traditions of the old Polish fencing schools vastly contributed to the development of fencing in inter-war Poland. Those schools were represented by such Polish fencing masters as Michał Ostoja Starzewski, who worked in Krakow by the end of 19^th century and conducted his training sessions on the basis of the French school principles of the “cross-art” (short fast cut from one side followed by an immediate riposte from the other side) formerly employed by the Poles [3].Parries proposed by Starzewski came mostly from the Italian and German schools. At the beginning of the 20^th century, certain cuts and parries (e.g., short and long) were still used in Poland. The on guard position was broad, with the legs widely spread, the feet under an angle of ninety degrees with respect to one’s body, the trunk sideways towards the opponent, the armed shoulder almost in line position. Two types of lunge were taught: single and double (with the extra leg put in). The cuts were performed with a straightened arm, applying the wrist joints with the elbow-joint immobile, with or without a swing. The possibility of teaching of all types of arms, including the foil – a typically thrust weapon – was undoubtedly a huge advantage of the Polish school. Its principles had been applied for a long period in fights of honor, until new fencing rules appeared (using the bio-mechanical analysis of the arm movement) [17].

In the first half of the 20^th century, one could distinguish fencing moves based on lightness and agility. Numerous international contests contributed to the interchange of ideas between the fencing masters and the fencers. Due to such a co-operation certain elements of one school could penetrate the training of other fencers. At that time fencers from different countries began to train “diverse” fencing: according to one's personal, mental and physical characteristics, without paying attention to the rules of the established schools [14].

From the beginning of the 20^th century, the French, German, „Austrian”, Italian and Hungarian fencing schools were in direct competition in the Polish territory.

For example, in Lvov, Fryderyk Dreher, a former artillery officer who worked in the Fencing Club (since 1891), taught fencing according to the rules of the German school. His successor, Karol Bernolak, applied an earlier obsolete French method, which was known in Lvov under the name of “Hochterz-Parade”. The main features of this method were arm moves by the “wrist”; replacement of the parry of the quinte by a high parry of the tierce; and some cuts made by the blade reverse. Also Artur Marié – a descendant of a French emigrant family living in Lvov for a long time – promoted and taught the French method. In Warsaw, in the hall established in 1890, the same school was promoted by Julian Michaeux. Soon after Polish fencers began to apply the modern Italian method, but its fully updated rules were propagated in Lvov by Orazio Santelli (brother of and assistant to the famous Italo Santeli) [12], and in Krakow by First Lieutenant Feliks Nowotny [29]. In inter-war Poland until 1928, sabre fencing had been taught, primarily according to the Italian method, which was modified by the French and Hungarian schools. According to Jerzy Zabielski, in spite of great precision and rapidity of performance of the technique-varied plays, “... negative characteristics of the Italian method included an insufficient emphasis of the intelligence aspect”. Hence the domination of Hungarians whose actions were characterized by simplicity and practices devoid of strict obedience to the arms leading by the forearm (“from the elbow”) [30].

Initially, Leopold Targler, a fencing master from the Viennese Wiener-Neustadt Academy (since 1922 a teacher of the Central Military School of Gymnastics and Sports in Poznan), made a great contribution to the development of Polish fencing before 1925. On the basis of the Academy’s principles, he developed the “Austrian method”, which was characterized, first of all, by precision and gradation of difficulties in fencing teaching. The arm moves were loose, performed from the elbow. Main parries were 1, 2, 5; and 3 and 4 as auxiliary. After 1926, Polish sabre contests witnessed greater effectiveness and a livelier pace. After the Hungarian fencing master Bela Szombathely had come to Poland in 1928 (he had been a participant of the eight-month training course at the Fencing Academy in Wiener-Neustadt), Hungarian methods became predominant. Hits were more frequent. The rapidity and technique of riposte were improved as well as overall mobility. The main parries were 3, 4, and 5; and 1 and 2 as auxiliary.

In 1938, impressed by the successes of Hungarian sabre-fencers trained by the fencer master Borsodi, Polish fencers began to conform to Borsodi’s methods. This was due to the co-operation between Kazimierz Laskowski and Borsodi, as well as to Janos’s Kevey arrival in Poland [15].

Foil fencing became dominated by the Italians, who performed the plays with the straightened arm (“in line”) and aspired to more frequent contacts with the opponent’s blade, whereas the French employed more free moves on the piste and the so-called “free play of blades” (jeu volant). They were also predominant in epee fencing – their national arms [30]. In the Second Polish Republic, epee and foil bouts displayed numerous features of sabre fencing.

The rivalry between the Italian and the French schools, as well as meetings of fencing masters from both countries (at exhibition bouts) greatly contributed to the transformation of the former art of arms wielding into the fencing sport.

In conclusion, it is necessary to state that the contacts of Poles with fencers from Austria, Hungary, Italy and France brought enormous changes to the Polish fencing techniques and tactics in the period of the Second Polish Republic. The Italian and Hungarian schools, whose principles were adopted according to the needs of Polish fencing, played the predominant role in that process.

The training conducted according to the French method (1919-1922); the works of L. Targlera, who conducted training sessions according to the Wiener-Neustadt school rules, and B. Szombathely (a graduate from this school’s training course) – who on the basis of the Hungarian school experience and his own innovations cooperated with the Polish national fencing team and top competitors from Poznan, Łódź, and Warsaw – brought effective results. Kazimierz Laskowski's and Stanisław Zagacki's training, based on the Italian school for fencing masters in Farnesine, prompted indivi-dual conceptions in the fighting technique and tactics [10, 13, 16, 20, 22, 23, 25, 26].

[1] Archiwum Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego, Studium Wychowania Fizycznego (Archives of the Jagiellonian University, Faculty of Physical Education), catalogue no. 79, Jubileusz 10-lecia Studium WF 1937-1939 (The 10^th Jubilee of the Faculty of Physical Education 1937-1939).

[2] Bela Szombathely 32-letni mistrz szermierki i nauczyciel Polaków (Bela Szombathely 32-year-old fencing champion and trainer of Poles), “Sport Review” 1932, 100, p. 3. In 1924 in Paris, he took lessons from the best French fencing masters, L. Barbasetti, Merignac and Laurent, for eight months.

[3] Bernolak, K., Podręcznik szermierczy i krótki opis szabli polskiej napisał Karol Bernolak dypl. Nauczyciel szermierki i gimnastyki przy Gimnazjum prywatnym O.O. Jezuitów w Chyrowie (Bąkowice) (Fencing manual and a brief description of Polish sabre fencing written by Karol Bernolak, a professional teacher of fencing and gymnastics at the Jesuit College in Chyrów (Bąkowice)), Druk Józefa Styfiego, Przemyśl 1898, p. 10.

[4] Czajkowski, Z., Luigi Barbasetti i jego szkoła (Luigi Barbasetti and his school), “Professional Sport”, 1993, 5-6, pp. 107-108. In Poland, Barbaseti’s influence embraced introduction of fencing terminology and activities, training methodology, conceptions, tactics, ways of teaching and improvement of plays.

[5] Czajkowski, Z., Narodziny sportowej szermierki na przełomie XIX i XX w. (The origin of the fencing sport at the turn of the 19^th and the 20^th century), “Physical Training and Sport”, 1986, 3, pp. 100-101.

[6] Czajkowski, Z., Nowa szermierka (New fencing), Edition II. Warsaw 1954, pp. 171-172.

[7] Czajkowski, Z., Rozwój szermierki na florety i jej współczesne oblicze (The development of foil fencing and its modern features), “Professional Sport” 1984, 2-3, p. 28.

[8] Czajkowski, Z., Szermierka, floret (Foil fencing), Warsaw 1987, p. 19.

[9] Czajkowski, Z., Teoria i metodyka współczesnej szermierki (Theory and methodology of modern fencing), Edition SiT, Poznań 1968, pp. 36-37.

[10] Czajkowski, Z., Trening szermierza. Wybrane zagadnienia (The fencer's training. Selected issues). Part II, Katowice 1988, pp. 5-16, 47-49.

[11] ”Czas”, 1900, 316.

[12] Goryńska, W., Szermierka (Fencing), Warsaw 1935, p. 37.

[13] Ionescu-Petrovici, R., Slävescu, P., Stama, T., Scrima de la A la Z, Edition of Editura Sport-Turism, Bucuresti 1984, p. 35.

[14] Klub Szermierzy we Lwowie (The Fencing Club in Lvov), “Sport” 1924, 112, p. 410.

[15] Laskowski, K., Dziesięć sportów dla młodzieży, (Ten sports for the youth), Gebethner and Wolf, Warsaw-Lublin-Łódź-Kraków – G. Gebethner & Co., New York, The Polish book import. Co, Inc., Kraków 1912, p. 110.

[16] Laskowski, K., Szermierka i boks w CIWF i AWF przed i po wojnie (Fencing and boxing at the CIWF and AWF before and after WWII), (in:) Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego w Warszawie imienia Generała broni Karola Świerczewskiego w latach 1929-1959. Księga pamiątkowa (The Warsaw Academy of Physical Education in the years 1929-1959, Visitors' book), SiT, Warsaw 1960, p. 308.

[17] Laskowski, K., Z zagadnień taktyki w szermierce (Some issues of the fencing tactics), “Physical Training” 1935, 6, p. 4.

[18] Lochner, E., Die Entwicklungsphasen der europäischen Fechtkunst, Wien 1953, p. 32.

[19] Lukovich, I., Szabo, L., Vivás, vivómesterség, Budapest 1986, p. 35.

[20] Łuczak, M., Zagacki Stanisław (1900-1981), Słownik biograficzny wychowania fizycznego i sportu (Biographical dictionary of physical education and sport), “Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport” (“Physical Education and Sport”) 1989, 1.

[21] Nadolski, A., Polska broń. Broń biała (Polish arms. Side arms), Wrocław 1984, pp. 19, 50, 70-72.

[22] Papée, A., Na planszach czterech olimpiad (On the pistes of the four Olympic Games), Warsaw 1957, p. 34.

[23] Pawełek, A., Centralna Szkoła Gimnastyki i Sportów w Poznaniu (The Central School of Gymnastics and Sport in Poznan), Poznań 1929, pp. 30, 37, 87.

[24] Pongowski, Fechtmistrz Eugeniusz Linnemann (Fencing Master Eugeniusz Linnemann), „Sport Weekly” 1922, no. 57, p. 11.

[25] Z. Czajkowski's tape recordings.

[26] Rudnicka, Z., Szermierka w Poznaniu do roku 1939 (Fencing in Poznan until 1939), (unpublished MA thesis), Poznań 1961, pp. 22-23

[27] Schenker, Z. O., Szermierka na szable (Sabre fencing). Warsaw – Budapest 1962, pp. 11-17.

[28] Sołtan, S., Oral report. Krakow 2 X 1986 r.

[29] Zabielski, J., Szermierka (Fencing), (in:) Przewodnik Sportowy (Sport Guide), Edited by T. Sawicki and W. Kwast, Edition of J. Lisowski, Warsaw 1933, pp. 155-156.

[30] Z dziejów rozwoju szermierki w Polsce (From the history of the development of Polish fencing), “Stadjon” 1927, 6, p. 4-5; Karol Bernolak died in 1899 (drowned while swimming in Strwiąż).

[31] Żygulski, Z., Jun., Broń w dawnej Polsce (The arms in ancient Poland), Warsaw 1982, pp. 120, 156-158.

After the fall of communism (in 1989) the Roman – Catholic Church in Poland, following Pope John Paul II`s footsteps, took up the matters concerning sport and – broadly understood – physical culture several times. The Episcopate published two Pastoral Letters: “On the Dangers in Health and Sport Cultivation” (of February 4^th, 1991) and “The Christian Qualities in Tourism” (of March 16^th – 18^th, 1995). Two Appeals of the Katowice Metropolian Archbishop Damian Zimoń (of March 15^th, 1990 and March 30^th, 1998) are also worth mentioning. The Bishops turned our attention onto the advantages flowing from habits of practising different disciplines and the dangers connected with commercialism and gladiator – oriented aspects of sport.

I

At the end of 1989 – on December 29^th – the Polish Sejm passed the Bill that modified basic inscriptions in – socialist till then – Constitution. The modifications concerned the name of the country and restored the name “the Republic of Poland”. The country should be “a democratic and law-abiding country truly disseminating the principles of social justice among its inhabitants” [2, 1, 11, 14]. While assessing the fact, Antoni Dudek stated that the December modifications of the Constitution actually had “(...) a symbolic meaning and confirmed the basic rules of the public order that was born many years earlier” [2]. The Polish society was, at that time, clearly split into the advocated of liberal economy (most of right – wing parties) and those who opted for the restoration of the country of social security (left-wing parties) [4].

The undertaken stabilisation-oriented activities brought their results in an approximately short time (1989-1991). According to Janusz Skodlarski “(...) the balance at the market of consumption goods was truly attained; cutting down inflation appeared successful; fast development of the private sector (mainly in commerce, the building industry and transport) became a fact; the currency was denominated; the banking sector was stabilised; at the same time many negative effects of structural transformation could be observed; the rate of un-employment clearly increased; the drop of production in many branches of national economy resulted in the growth of poverty that became a real fact to larger circles of people” [17]. The structural transformation in Poland did not bring up the expected betterment of the conditions of life of many people.

II

One of the expectations of the Polish Roman Catholic Church connected with the fall of communism in the country was that it would give it a chance to enlarge the field of its unhindered public activity. Many a time did its representatives stated that what they truly cared for was to make people “(...) understand the historical facts that happened in Poland (...); actually – not verbally – reveal their love towards the poor, the oppressed, the lonely, the homeless (...); give the evidence of belief by means of vivid, ardent participation in all necessary Christian duties, the belief that was – at the same time - creative and able to change ourselves and the world we live in” [7]. The most important moral authority of our times the Pope John Paul II said to the crowds of people that came to meet him in Płock, during his Fourth Pilgrimage to Poland (01^st – 09^th of June, 1991): “(...) freedom is difficult; it is necessary to learn what it means to be truly free, so that our freedom wouldn’t become our slavery, our internal imprisonment, as well as a reason of the slavery of others” [2]. What he means was that Poles should be able to ‘economise’ on their own freedom, making it a tool that would lift then to the betterment of their daily existence.

III

One of the chances to present the attitude of the Roman Catholic Church towards the structural transformations of the 90s in Poland were formed by the celebrations of the 130 anniversary of the Gymnastic Society “Sokół” in Poland. The size of the anniversary imposed on it, both by the ecclesiastical and the national authorities (for example in Kraków)^{[ 1]}, as well as the media (TV and radio first of all), not only indicated the general acceptance of the sport traditions of the Society and its indubitable contribution to the development and the waking up of the national spirit of Poles, but also the cultivation and the evolution of, broadly understood, physical (and health) culture of the whole society in the period of II and III Republic.

I

The speech delivered by John Paul II, headlined by L’Osservatore Romano (No. 6, 1990) “Church in Approval of Basic Qualities of Sport” contained a considerable number of axiological remarks on the cultivation and the subject matter of sport. The speech clearly sped up the official enouncements of a number of bishops as well as the whole Episcopate of Poland concerning the issues of the existing dangers in the process of cultivation of sport and personal health. One of the documents is the official statement on sport presented by the Katowice Bishop Damian Zimoń who, in the introduction of his Letter, stated that “(...) among many factors of contemporary social life that draw people’s attention and exert indubitable influence upon their life choices, sport appears to be this activity that gets more and more concern; however, as it one can see this branch of human life can be a problem and possible solutions of the undesirable topics spotted there are being sought by the governments worldwide” [10]. The Bishop appealed that “(...) the sport media should teach respect towards all sportsmen and not antagonise the fans of one football team against those of the other, put-ting much effort in the popularisation of sport as an arena of noble competition instead” [10]. He was also of opinion that “(...) it is only when man is actively involved in a sport event that he has got a chance to learn the actual non-crooked picture of sport. What should one aim at is that such a chance of active involvement in sport (and, hence, taking part in the various competitions of regional level) should be given to as many young people as possible. Family participation in a number of such events seems to be the most desirable.” In order to attain this it is necessary to “(...) build a number of, sensibly placed, generally admitted sport objects of average standard in a number of sites, villages and districts; such objects should be cared for by the appointed self-government executives” [10].

This original sport appeal published by the Bishop directly precedes the Pastoral Letter on “The Dangers in health and Sport Cultivation” of February 04^th, 1991.

II

While publishing the Pastoral Letter of February 04^th, 1991, the Polish Bishops stated that “(...) the current research, the sociological analyses, as well as everyday observations bring us closer and closer to the conclusion that the average biological condition of the Polish society is bad and the social awareness of the approaching danger in respect to the problems of health is scanty” [9].

Later on the Bishops stated that “(...) it is a common practice that health is undervalued, that people do not know what to do to protect it. The lack of basic forms of behaviour and beliefs that concern the topics of health protection, the increase of people that are physically unwell and unfit in the society, not because of the age, but because of various civilisation diseases (and such diseases are very often found in very young people), non-hygienic style of life and – connected with it - the uncontrolled growth of such health abuses as nicotine, alcohol and drugs and, finally, almost complete disappearance of the idea of rational, health-beneficial spending of free time (...)” [3, 9] – this is the picture of Poland of the period of structural transformation^{[ 2]}.

The members of the Episcopate of Poland decided that it is a duty of a catholic to keep his/her body in the state of hygiene “(...) because we very often endanger it by means of relinquishment or other reckless deeds, for which procedures we are fully responsible. Health is not a gift bestowed upon us by God once and forever. In order to preserve and to improve it, one has to work all the time, making use of any possible conditions, paths and possibilities on any levels of human existence, starting form, broadly understood, health education, up to, appropriately conceived, sport and tourism” [9].

Currently, as the Polish Bishops described it in order to improve the state of public health “(...) it is necessary to apply a new philosophy. It seems there is a social moment of time in which the change has to be applied; and not only ought it to be applied upon the systematic, or organisational, levels, but also, and – as it seems – first of all, on the levels of education and intellectual influence so as to be able to create the new mentality as well as the forms of social behaviour of the society; this requires an effort to strenuously build up a new set of social customs” [9]. According to the authors of the Letter, the technical civilisations very often turns against man his health; in the times of, generally observed, isolation of people from nature as well as the destruction of the human natural environment, it seems of utmost importance to implement, on as broad a scale as possible, the issues of physical education and sport” [9].

The propagation of sport in the sense of man’s general recreational involvement in it as well as the control of the proper functioning of one’s own body ought to be based – according to the stance presented by the Bishops – on “(...) the development of strength, agility, dexterity, and the co-ordination of movements as well as considerable growth of physical perseverance. Sport favours the development of strong will and rivalry incites the need of activity. Sport teaches the necessity of subordination to a number of tasks that are to be performed, the sense of duty and responsibility, at the same time shaping one’s personality. The well-understood idea of sport fulfils the requirements of asceticism and can be a way to sanctity” [9].

At the same time – what was noticed by the Polish Bishops – “(...) the existing system describing the mutual co-existence of Polish culture and sport does not reveal any symptoms useful for the improvement of the level of physical culture and the state of health in the society. The chronic lack of financial means that may be spent on any physical culture-related tasks; the visible deficiency of objects used to implement the issues of practical participation in physical culture by the members of the society; the lack of properly educated personnel are but a few of the noticed drawbacks. Disregarding the issue of general physical culture, the aims of purely sport nature, such as new records and professional involvement in sport, the quality of sport performance and the money possible to be earned there are still being preferred. The situation is even more dangerous because of the fact that many Polish children seem to be physically retarded; the problems related to the inefficiencies of the locomotion system or various spine and muscle problems are more and more common. Our new generation, seemingly strong and healthy, is actually weak, disease-prone, in need of medical intervention only because an elementary rule saying that any evil has to be out-rooted at the very beginning and any dangers of health have to be eradicated as early as possible were neglected. This is why we implore you to remember that health – this priceless deposit people received from God – should be guarded as one’s pupil of the eye and multiplied as much as it is only possible” [9]. Later on the Polish Bishops stated: “(...) we appeal to parents so that while pursuing any more or less real aims, they would not forget about their obligation to protect the state of health of their children. How often, with only little effort and minor financial expenses, can one do so much to improve one’s physical state of health. This is why we would like to ask any teachers, educators or patrons of young people to incite the interest of physical culture in their pupils and to disseminate all these forms of behaviour among the young people they are responsible for so as to have grounded the habit of minding for their personal health among them. In many cases, such steps are possible to be performed without great sums of money and expensive equipment. Any thoughtful and sensible activity, based on the Christian moral patters and introduced accordingly, man brings wonderful results. At the same time we address the people working in the health sector, so that they have followed the rule “principiis obsta” (i.e. destroy any evil when it is small). Such an activity should be based on a straightforward and general epidemiological diagnosis that would not only refer to any possible dangers to health, but also form the general line in any preventive actions of health education” [9].

Finally, the Bishops asked all the men of science and letters “(...) to influence upon the change of human mentality concerning the preservation of human health, as well as its protection anywhere it is possible. We also ask the national executives of any level who are in charge of the national financial means, as well as those who take care of the financial means of the sponsors, to undertake a difficult task to build up the sporting framework from the beginning so that the constructed objects are, subsequently, used to serve the purposes of the preservation of physical (and health) culture of the nation. We also appeal to sportsmen, whose sport rivalry is daily watched by millions of spectators – let your behaviour be soaked with nobility, let is serve as moral background to your fans. At the same time we appeal to fans so that they preserved their worthy, deprived of any brutality and vulgarisms, attitude. It is only in this way, all together, aware of both the existing dangers and possible ways of salvation, that we are able to aid the health of the nation and each of the citizens of this country, in particular, saving the priceless gift bestowed upon us by God. It is because of the necessity of going along this difficult, but painful; road, that we bless you from all our hearts” [9].

III

The Polish Bishops in their February ‘91 Letter focused themselves on the scientific, sociological, educational, biological and moral problems of Polish sport. The Letter has become the fullest so far, as well as the most complete document of the Church, which dealt with the complicated problems of the most popular and spontaneously developing branch of physical culture, i.e. sport. The Polish Bishops elicited a number of dangers that assist the evolution of this social phenomenon – starting from these of biological and educational nature up to the moral and ethical ones. At the same time they appealed to any national and social authorities to effectively counter-act the existing crisis.

I

The Pastoral Letter of March 16^th -18^th, 1995 entitled “On the Christian Qualities in Tourism” – the first ever document in which Polish Bishops reveal their stance on tourism – contains, among others, the following excerpt: “(...) one of the characteristic features of XX century is enormous, unnoticed before, increase of tourism. People travel in order to look for a new job, flee from persecutions, or attempt to fix any economical, or political, contacts. But they also travel, in order to learn as much a possible about the local (and other) environment, or simple, because they look for a place to rest. The Church has found the phenomenon of human travelling to be one of the signs of the time. In one of the documents written after the ecumenical council one can find a remark that “(...) people change the way they live because of having been compelled to change the place of their life by a number of reasons (KDK, 6)” [8].

In 1995, the Polish Bishops, Archbishops and Cardinals were aware of the fact that tourism can be a factor effectively influencing upon the man’s way of life – and his revival as a person. John Paul II, during his First (1979) Pilgrimage to Poland, while meeting the crowds of believers in Nowy Targ, turned his eyes towards the neighbouring mountains and said: “(...) Man craves for the beauty of nature – no wonder that people from different part of Poland still want to come here. They are coming here in winter and in summer. They are looking for rest. They want to face the nature. They want to find joy and strength in their physical efforts: walking up the mountain, climbing or skiing downhill (VI, 1979)”.

The authors of the Letter stressed that human physical strength is a miraculous gift bestowed upon man by God. It does not only serve an individual, but also a family, or even a community. Man should nurse and take care of it, remembering about regular rest and healthy outdoor movement. The effort he puts in “(...) tourism, the acceptance of discomforts and difficult conditions he may find there, all this helps in the hardening of man’s inside, teaches perseverance, patience, generosity and courage – the qualities so necessary in everyday life. One can speak about particular asceticism of tourism” [8].

The Bishops meant the steps leading to the strengthening of discipline in the Polish society, so necessary in the times of the structural transformation of the country.

The members of the Episcopate of Poland stated in the Letter: “(...) tourism helps in building bridges among people. It is because of having visited a place, having met and learned more about the people living there, that closer bonds are established. This is a chance to reveal oneself in many various deeds of brotherhood and love. Such situations clearly favour the strengthening of peace when performed on the international level. It is necessary to make such bonds in any family, as many of them lack the time to foster such mutual contacts. A Sunday trip can be an excellent occasion for that” [8].

II

The Polish catholic hierarchs were aware of “(...) the dangers that are hidden in tourism; temporary leaving of one’s permanent place of residence, may trigger forgetting about Christian moral rules. The aim of an excursion must not be the achievement of total freedom or a decision of gaining total and unlimited pleasure. Holiday time is not the time of thoughtless spending of the money earned with so much difficulty just some time earlier. It must not be an occasion for excessive use of alcohol or sexual abuse of any kind. No true joy can be experienced when one’s consciousness has been burdened with sin. Real tourism requires an ability to step aside from the reckless speed of everyday life so as to have time for deeper admiration and contemplation of what one has just been able to see: the inner beauty of nature or the monuments erected by people. But, first of all, it requires an ability to behold oneself in that beauty. The modern world is full of unrest; strong emotions, loud music, colourful TV and newspaper pictures ruthlessly attacking human minds. Such a situation very often forms an obstacle in man’s desire to search for the sense of his existence as well as to discover his identity. Tourism can be for his a chance to find a long-lost route, if only he will perceive it as a process of conscious looking for deeper values” [8].

The authors of this interesting document also turned their attention onto the ecological aspects that are connected with the development of tourism: “(...) being so close to nature we admire its inner beauty. Let us not forget to keep the routes and parking places clean. Let us not forget that silence should help people contemplate the beauty of nature. Let us follow the regulations informing us about the rules of behaviour while walking the mountains or the woods, or spending our time at the lakes, or in national parks. All such rules were written for the benefit of tourists, to secure the goods of nature for the next generations. The periods we usually leave for our holidays is the time of considerably heavier traffic. Let us be able to remember about other drivers and, when stopped by the police, let us be able to turn to them according to the Christian rules of behaviour” [8].

The Bishops clearly stressed the religious elements observed in Sunday free time: “(...) for many tourists it is a facilitation when they have been given an occasion to complete their Christian obligation to serve the Holy Mass on Saturday evening. This, however, does not mean that they are permitted to forget about the religious character of Sunday.” [8]

The members of the Episcopate of Poland directly addressed all the people “(...) responsible for the organisation of the tourist movement: all the guides and tourist organisers, teachers and educators, workers of tourist agencies, hotel and shelter owners, people responsible for the service rendered to tourists in the air and at the sea. Let the tourists help unveil the real beauty of tourism. Like real secular apostles, help others so that they have experienced their free time in a decent way, aiming at real development of their human identity. Do not change the emotional traits of tourism into one of the branches of a very highly profitable business. Here, an important function may be performed by the members of tourist catholic societies that are currently at the stage of the making. Their task is to work out the paths of the Christian understanding of the idea of tourism and, subsequently, animate its different forms. An important task would be help rendered to poorer families so that would also taste the benefits of tourism” [8]. Further the Letter contained the following important remark: “(...) we appeal to the inhabitants of many tourist- and holiday-offering sites, reminding them of the existence of an old Polish proverb: “God and guests are equally welcome home.” Try to make pleasant atmosphere to all of your guests. We have observed the fact that to many of you, mostly farmers, summer is the time of hard work; but, please, notice that the town inhabitants that arrived at your places to have spent their holidays there also work hard. Let admitting your holiday guests not become a form of increasing your income only, but also a chance to reveal the Christian love of a neighbour” [8].

The Pastoral Letter of the Episcopate of Poland of March 16^th – 18^th, 1995, entitled “On the Christian Qualities in Tourism” was the most important document that indicated the concern of Polish Roman-Catholic Church about the forms of development of tourism in the country. The contents of the Letter refer to both various aspects of pilgrimage tourism and its recreational, health-oriented, ecological, educational and patriotic qualities.

III

In the appeal of the Katowice Metropolitan, Archbishop D. Zimoń, dated March 30^th, 1998, and entitled “Minding the Future of the Young Generation” one can easily discover the attitude of Polish Roman-Catholic Church towards the problem of the increasing level of brutal and unmanly forms of behaviour of young people. “(...) Recent instances of hooligan behaviour of young people in the Katowice ‘Spodek’ sports-hall, as well as the Katowice football stadium have risen the level of our worry and concern (...)” [19]. Because of that the Katowice Metropolian has made up his mind to “(...) appeal to all the people responsible for the education of the young generation and make sure that the social order will be regained and the co-operation to restore it will become even more accurate (...)” [12, 18, 19].

The second appeal of Archbishop D. Zimoń that also dealt with sport problems does not seem to close the difficult topics of unmanly and brutal behaviour of fans at the stadiums^{[ 3]} [16].

Today, at the threshold of XXI century, the appeal has taken even more up-to-date and universal character. It is hoped it will work – just like many earlier Pastoral Letters written by Polish Bishops in 90s – as a stimulator for many social groups in their search for more effective means to counter-act the level of brutal forms of behaviour at the stadiums and other sport objects.

[1] Czubiński, A., Historia Polski XX wieku (The History of XX century Poland), Wydawnictwo Poznańskie, Poznań 2000.

[2] Dudek, A., Pierwsze lata III Rzeczypospolitej 1989–1995. Zarys historii politycznej Polski (The First Years of III Republic 1989–1995. An Outline of the Political History of Poland), Wydawnictwo GEO, Kraków 1994.

[3] Gaj, J., Pieczyński, P., Urban, R., Sport w Polsce w okresie transformacji ustrojowej (Polish Sport in the Period of Structural Transformation) (in:) J. Gaj, B. Woltmann, eds., Zarys historii sportu w Polsce 1867–1996 (An Outline of the History of Polish Sport 1867–1996), Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Kultury Fizycznej. Sekcja Historii KF, Gorzów Wlkp. 1999, pp. 205-260.

[4] Jezierski, A., Leszczyńska, C., Historia gospodarcza Polski (The Economical History of Poland), Wydawnictwo Key Text, Warszawa 1997.

[5] Kosiewicz, J., Kultura fizyczna i sport w perspektywie filozofii (Physical Culture and Sport from the Perspective of Philosophy), Wydawnictwo AWF, Warszawa 2000.

[6] Kronika 1991 (The Chronicle of 1991), Wydawnictwo “KRONIKA”, Warszawa 1992.

[7] Nadchodzi Nowe Tysiąclecie. List Pasterski Biskupów Polskich na zakończenie Roku Wielkiego Jubileuszu Chrześcijaństwa (We Are Approaching the New Millennium. The Pastoral Letter of the Polish Bishops at the End of the Year of the Great Jubilee of Christianity), “Niedziela. Tygodnik Katolicki” (“Sunday. The Catholic Weekly Magazine”), 2000, 2, p. 8.

[8] O chrześijańskich walorach turystyki. List Pasterski Episkopatu Polski z 16-18 marca1995 r.(The Christian Qualities in Tourism. The Pastoral Letter of the Episcopate of Poland of March 16^th – 18^th, 1995) (in:) Archiwum Parafii Katedralnej Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Marii Panny w Sosnowcu (The Archives of the Cathedral Parish of Assumption of Virgin Mary in Sosnowiec), bez sygn. (unsigned).

[9] O zagrożeniach zdrowia i sportu. List Pasterski Episkopatu Polski z 4 lutego 1991 r. (On the Dangers in Health and Sport Cultivation. The Pastoral Letter of the Episcopate of Poland of February 4^th , 1991) (in:) Archiwum Parafii Katedralnej Wniebowzięcia Najświętszej Marii Panny w Sosnowcu (The Archives of the Cathedral Parish of Assumption of Virgin Mary in Sosnowiec), bez sygn. (unsigned).

[10] Odezwa Bpa Katowickiego Damiana Zimonia na temat sportu z 15 marca 1990 r. (An Appeal of the Katowice Bishop Damian Zimoń on Sport of March 15^th , 1990) (in:) Archiwum Archidiecezjalne w Katowicach. Kancelaria Metropolity Katowickiego (Górnośląskiego) Arcybiskupa Damiana Zimonia (The Archdiocese Archives in Katowice. The Office of the Katowice Metropolian (Upper Silesia) Archbishop Damian Zimoń), bez sygn. (unsigned).

[11] Paczkowski, A., Od sfałszowanego zwycięstwa do prawdziwej klęski (From Falsified Victory to Real Defeat), Wydawnictwo Literackie, Kraków 1999.

[12] Ponczek, M., Episkopat Polski wobec sportu i turystyki w latach dziewięćdziesiątych XX wieku (The Episcopate of Poland towards Sport and Tourism in Poland in 90s of XX century) (in:) Z. Dziubiński, ed., Sport na przełomie tysiącleci: szanse i nadzieje (Sport at the Break of the Millenium: Hopes and Possibilities), Salezjańska Organizacja Sportowa RP, Warszawa 2000, pp. 78-86.

[13] Ponczek, M., Kościół rzymskokatolicki a Towarzystwo Gimnastyczne “Sokół”. Przyczynek do historii kultury fizycznej Polski (The “Sokół” Gymnastic Society And Roman Catholic Church. A Contribution to the History of Physical Culture in Poland), “Zeszyty Metodyczno-Naukowe” (“Methodical – Scientific Fascicles”), 1998, 9, pp. 15-25.

[14] Ponczek, M., Halemba, P., Kościół rzymskokatolicki wobec przeobrażeń w kulturze fizycznej w III Rzeczypospolitej 1990–2000 (The Roman – Catholic Church and the Systematic Changes in Physical Culture in III Republic 1990–2000) (in:) B. Woltmann, ed., Przeobrażenia w systemie kultury fizycznej po 1989 roku w Polsce i w Niemczech – Wandlungen in System der Korperkultur nach 1989 in Polen und Deutschland (Changes in the System of Physical Culture after 1989 in Poland and Germany), Instytut Wychowania Fizycznego Poznańskiej AWF w Gorzowie Wlkp., Polskie Towarzystwo Naukowe Kultury Fizycznej. Oddział w Gorzowie Wlkp., Gorzów Wlkp. 2002, pp. 53-66.

[15] Ponczek, M., Kultura fizyczna w dokumentach papieskich i Episkopatu Polski w pierwszym dziesięcioleciu III Rzeczypospolitej 1989–1999 (Physical Culture in the Pope`s Statements and the Episcopate of Poland`s Documents in the First Decade of the Third Polish Republic 1989–1999), Wydawnictwa Politechniki Częstochowskiej, Częstochowa 2003.

[16] Salezjańska Organizacja Sportowa RP (SALOS RP) (in:) Kuria Diecezjalna w Sosnowcu. Informator pielgrzyma a wizyta apostolska Jana Pawła II w Sosnowcu 14 czerwca 1999 (The Diocese Curia in Sosnowiec. The Pilgrimage Bulletin and the Visit of John Paul II in Sosnowiec on June 14^th, 1999), pp. 140-141.

[17] Skodlarski, J., Zarys historii gospodarczej Polski (An outline of the Economical History of Poland), Wydawnictwo Naukowe PWN, Warszawa – Łódź 2000.

[18] Ustawa o bezpieczeństwie imprez masowych (A Bill Concerning the Safety at Mass Sport Performances), “Sport dla wszystkich” (“Sport for Everybody”), 1999, 3, pp. 26-29.

[19] W trosce o przyszłość młodego pokolenia. Odezwa Metropolity Katowickiego z 30 marca 1998 r. (Minding the Future of the Young Generation. An Appeal of March 30^th , 1998 of the Katowice Metropolian) (in:) Archiwum Archidiecezjalne w Katowicach. Arcybiskup Metropolita Katowicki (Górnośląski) – (The Archdiocese Archives in Katowice. The Office of the Katowice Metropolian (Upper Silesia) Archbishop Damian Zimoń), VAI 6257/ 98.

The aim of the following study was to determine the forms and spread of health-oriented life styles of students and graduates of the Warsaw School of Economics (WSE), and their engagement in those activities. It has been found that 35% of students systematically participate in the physical education program, which is only facultative for them. Moreover, only 15.6% of students and as little as 4.9% of graduates are not engaged in any sport, while about 50 and 80%, respectively, practise at least 3 sports, either systematically or occasionally. Students and graduates of the WSE may thus be regarded as an opinion-forming group, whose life style in the area of physical activity creates a desirable pattern.

According to Mirkiewicz and Obodyński [10], two million people in Poland have university education; 10 million have secondary education, and 14 million – elementary education. Those with university education shape their own life style, different from that of other social layers, as the life style reflects the level of education, social position and social self-awareness. Those factors shape the attitudes and behaviours that characterise a life style above the average standard, also in the area of health. Thus, inequalities in living standards of individuals and their families are reflected in their biological condition.

Various deficiencies in living conditions adversely affect physical development of children, health status of adults, and decrease the lifespan. The lower the educational and job position of parents, the lower body height and the slower the adolescence process. The lower the social status, the higher the percentage of obese people and the incidence of obesity-related ailments. The lower the education, the faster bone demineralisation, and the higher risk of osteoporosis [1, 2].

The reports of McKeown, McKinleys and Karmel (cited after [13, 14]), resulting from long-lasting health studies on various populations, made the paradigm “good medical service = good health” questionable. They have demonstrated that progress in medicine has a smaller impact on the lifespan than environmental factors, including elements of the life style. Lalond's report from 1978 (cited after [13, 14]), pertaining to highly developed countries, pointed to four groups of health-related factors: biological (genetic), environmental, medical service-related, and life style-related.

According to Woynarowska [24, 25], life style consists of a set of attitudes, behaviours, and a general life philosophy of an individual or a group. It depends on living conditions, environment, social norms, culture, values, attitudes, knowledge and beliefs, general economy, politics and social structure. Life style depends on the level of education, job and the original social layer. The level of education markedly influences the life style, shapes, intensifies cultural participation, social interrelations, and it forms steady, informal ties [27]. The life style of the educated class has become a model pattern, which attracts other social groups [17]. Thus, more attention in that respect should be devoted to university students who, because of their striving to gain knowledge and their cultural activities, may not only serve as carriers of culture but also as its creators [9, 12].

The Warsaw School of Economics has held the leading position among economic universities in Poland and Eastern Europe for several years, and in 1998 it became a full-fledged member of the Community of European Management Schools (CEMS). The numbers of candidates applying for admission steadily increase and triple the number of available admissions. As the most influential Polish weekly magazines state [6, 8, 11], about every third Polish subject with economic background graduated from the Warsaw School of Economics, and many of them were or have been holding top governmental posts. The Warsaw School of Economics is regarded as an exclusive school giving way to successful careers. This high social position of school graduates not only requires highly professional qualifications, but also imposes a certain mode of behaviour and life style, as an active, intense life requires good health, physical and mental fitness as well as advanced cultural demands. Thus, adequate recreation and health-oriented life style is of paramount importance. The aim of this study was to identify the health-oriented life style of the students of the Warsaw School of Economics, its range, forms, and intensity. This included students' opinions regarding the roles of physical education activities. Could the physical education activities shape students’ lifestyles, in which health care and recreation would be valued? Can the habits formed during sport and physical education activities be utilised in future life – private and professional? Could the effects of those activities bring about the belief that students’ health depends, to a high degree, on themselves, on their determination to keep fit and healthy? How to make use of that intellectual potential, when after having designed sport and recreation programs, the current number of 0.6 million students is expected to double in the year 2010 [26]. Would this population of educated people advocate physical activities in their families, homes, and job areas?

The study involved 500 students of the 1^st and 4^th grades of the Warsaw School of Economics (WSE), and 200 graduates, both participating or not participating in physical education courses organised by the university.

Physical education courses in the WSE are facultative but scored. The Centre of Sport and Physical Education (CSPE) of the WSE arranges activities available to all students. These activities include sport clubs, advanced sport teams, rehabilitation groups, and camps.

The following techniques were employed in this study:

The study was conducted in the autumn of 1998. A total of 617 questionnaires were selected for analysis after having rejected incomplete and unreliable ones. The so-called G-function (chi-square test) [18] was employed, the level of p 0.05 being considered significant.

The reported data concerning forms of recreation and physical activities of students and graduates is presented in Tab. 1-6 and in Fig. 1. The subjects have declared they are convinced that physical activity is essential for keeping fit, relaxing following mental effort, body shaping, and strength recovering. They enjoy physical activity and are aware that such an activity is important to prevent civilisation-related diseases and enable social contacts (Table 1). The percentages of selection of the above reasons ranged from 33.6 to 87.1% in students, and from 30.2 to 91.8% in graduates. The two groups did not differ significantly in the frequencies of attributions, except in improving physical fitness, which was indicated significantly more frequently by students than by graduates (61.2 and 41.2%, respectively).

Regular physical activity is becoming part of a health-oriented life style, and creating health-oriented habits makes some way towards shaping the desired behaviours [5, 7, 16]. Accordingly, 67.0% of the questioned graduates regularly attended classes organised by the CSPE (Table 2).

In 1991, the university was among the first schools where physical education ceased to be obligatory. By making the participation in various activities widely accessible, stimulating the emergence of diverse sport and recreational clubs, and introducing attractive sport events and propagating sport or tourist camps [3], the CSPE considerably slowed down the decreasing tendencies in practising physical activities. At present, 35.2% of students declare their regular participation in physical education classes while only 4.4% state they attend the classes in order to gain credit points (Table 2).

Table 1. The benefits from physical activity as declared by students and graduates of the Warsaw School of Economics

Data reported as percentages of multiple choices. ***, difference significant (p < 0.001).

Table 2. Attitudes to physical education classes (percentages)

Data reported as percentages of multiple choices. *, difference significant (p < 0 .05), ***, difference significant (p < 0.001). ¹ Facultative subject; ² Obligatory subject during the time of their studies.

Taking into account the drive towards improving physical fitness, and the fact that physical education is only facultative, the results showed that 88.7% of students were exercising in recreational centres, and 64.5% – individually or in conjunction with the former. The percentage of graduates practising individually (65.9%) is practically identical with that of the students, while the percentage of graduates attending recreational centres is considerably smaller (37.9%; see Tab. 3).

The percentage of students occasionally engaged in one sport is considerably greater than that of graduates. As shown in Fig. 1 (left), with an increasing number of sports practised simultaneously, the percentages of students (p < 0.05) decrease significantly from 22.4 (2 sports) to 7.6% (5 sports), while corresponding percentages of graduates do not change significantly and range from 21.1 (3 or 4 sports) to 12.0% (5 sports). In the case of systematically practised sports, the percentages of both students and graduates decrease sharply with an increasing number of sports practised simultaneously (Fig. 1, right).

Table 3. Free-time physical activities

Data reported as percentages of multiple choices. ***, difference significant (p < 0.001).

Figure 1. Percentages of students (Stud.) and graduates (Grad.) declaring participation in various numbers of sports, either occasionally (A) or systematically (B)

Some positive changes in the “sport for all” attitude may be noticed in young, well situated people from the circles of business, arts, public media, including students and graduates from exclusive schools, such as the WSE. In such circles, some activities are becoming “fashionable”. They include, e.g., sport games, aerobic, bodybuilding and, seasonally, skiing, sailing and horse riding. Increasing numbers of those people spend their time in selected clubs, in which social contacts play an important role, as they facilitate collective activities such as golf, squash, skittles, tennis, etc. [23]. The sports, most preferred by the WSE students and graduates are swimming, team games, gymnastics, aerobic, bodybuilding, and cycling. Other sports, of an exclusive or spatial character, include sailing, scuba diving, tennis, horse riding, skiing, and climbing (Tables 4 and 5). Relatively more (p < 0.05) graduates than students practise swimming, skiing and snowboarding. They also more frequently play tennis, practise aerobics, swimming, windsurfing, sailing, scuba diving and cycling. On the other hand, relatively more students than graduates play basketball.

Table 4. Participation in sport activities, both individually and in non-university centres

Data reported as percentages of multiple choices. *, difference significant (p < 0.05), ***, difference significant (p < 0.001).

Table 5. Numbers of sports reported as practised systematically or occasionally

Data reported in percentages. ***, difference significant (p < 0.001).

Graduation from such an exclusive school as the WSE becomes a pass to career [22], defined by a set of factors, such as job, position, income, participation in cultural life, and social awareness [19, 20]. Every year over one thousand new graduates join those who create and transform the country's economy, and thus shape the country's image. It was interesting to learn about their expected future engagement in popularising various forms of physical culture. As it can be seen from Table 6, no significant differences between students and graduates were found in that respect.

Table 6. Expected engagement in physical activities as declared by students or graduates of the Warsaw School of Economics

Students and graduates of university schools, especially exclusive ones, like the Warsaw School of Economics, can be viewed as an opinion-forming group [21]. The presented results show that the attitudes of the subjects under study towards physical activities are positive. The respondents are aware of the necessity of physical education classes as well as of free-time activities, which, in turn, broadens their understanding and awareness of the environment and its role in maintaining psychophysical shape and fitness. Since exclusive social circles are attractive to other groups, integrated education, including physical fitness and care for the environment, appears indispensable. Active, health-oriented life styles gain increasing social approval, therefore, the role of so oriented education and upbringing in exclusive schools is of paramount importance.

[1] Bielicki, T., Społeczeństwo bezklasowe w oczach antropologa: utopia czy stan osiągalny? “Kultura Fizyczna”, 2000, 11-12.

[2] Bielicki, T., Społeczeństwo bezklasowe w oczach antropologa: utopia czy stan osiągalny? (in:)Społeczne kontrasty w stanie zdrowia Polaków, AWF, Warszawa 1999.

[3] Charzewski, J., Sozański, H., Ważny, Z., System upowszechniania sportu, AWF, Warszawa 1998.

[4] Drabik, J., Aktywność fizyczna w edukacji zdrowotnej społeczeństwa, cz. I, AWF, Gdańsk 1995.

[5] Eengstrom, L.M., The process of socialization into keep-fit activities, “Scand. J. Sport Sci.”, 1986, 3.

[6] Janecki, S., Ranking szkół ekonomicznych. Kadry dla Europy, “Wprost”, 09.06, 1996.

[7] Kocemba, W., Uczestnictwo studentów w kulturze fizycznej, AWF, Warszawa 1993.

[8] Leśniewska, Z., Wylęgarnia władzy, “Wprost”, 30.03, 1997.

[9] Mirkiewicz, M., Uczestnictwo w kulturze fizycznej studentów rzeszowskich uczelni, WSP, Rzeszów 1990.

[10] Mirkiewicz, M., Obodyński, K., Absolwenci szkół wyższych promotorami sportu w miejs-cach zamieszkania. Międzynarodowe sympozjum “Sport w procesie integracji europejskiej”, AWF, Warszawa 1998.

[11] Nowakowska, E., Wybieraj studia z głową, “Polityka”, 15.06, 1996.

[12] Obodyński, K., Kształtowanie się kultury fizycznej młodzieży akademickiej w Polsce, WSP, Rzeszów 1992.

[13] Ostrowska, A., Prozdrowotne style życia. Elementy nowego ładu, IFiS PAN, Warszawa 1997.

[14] Ostrowska, A., Prozdrowotne style życia, “Nauki Społeczne i Medycyna”, 1997, 10-11.

[15] Ozadowicz, P., Zjazd absolwentów na 90 urodziny. Dobra forma SGH, “Trybuna”, 23-24.11, 1996.

[16] Pilicz, S., Wychowanie fizyczne młodzieży akademickiej, AWF, Warszawa 1984.

[17] Siciński, A., Styl życia. Przemiany we współczesnej Polsce, PWN, Warszawa 1978.

[18] Stupnicki, R., Biometria, Margos, Warszawa, 2000.

[19] Szczepański, J., Wykształcenie a pozycja społeczna inteligencji, cz. I, PWN, Łódź 1959.

[20] Szczepański, J., Wykształcenie a pozycja społeczna inteligencji, cz. II, PWN, Łódź 1960.

[21] Sztumski, J., Elity ich miejsce i rola w społeczeństwie, Śląsk, Katowice 1997.

[22] Wasilewski, J., Społeczne procesy rekrutacji regionalnej elity władzy, Ossolineum, Wrocław 1990.

[23] Wolańska, T., Stan aktualny i model przyszłościowy koncepcji edukacji zdrowotnej i dba-łości o stan zdrowia, której podstawą jest wysoka aktywność fizyczna, Raport PBZ 003-05, zadanie 1.5, Warszawa 1998.

[24] Woynarowska, B., et al., Zachowania zdrowotne młodzieży w Polsce, Instytut Matki i Dziecka, Warszawa 1993.

[25] Woynarowska, B., Wojciechowska, A., Aktywność fizyczna dzieci i młodzieży. Kwalifikacja lekarska do wychowania fizycznego w szkole, Instytut Matki i Dziecka, Warszawa 1993.

[26] W perspektywie roku 2010. Raport w sprawie opracowania dlugotrwałej strategii rozwoju Polski na okres 15 lat, Komitet prognoz “Polska w XXI wieku”, PAN, Warszawa 1995.

[27] Żukowska, Z., Styl życia absolwentów uczelni wychowania fizycznego, AWF, Warszawa 1979.

The following work is an attempt to show and discuss main tendencies of changes in the life style of modern Poles, with a particular consideration of changes in the area of leisure pursuits. The role of physical recreation in the life style of selected social groups has been indicated as well as the influence of recreation on the sense of life quality. Two social groups have been characterized: the youth and the representatives of the so-called new middle class, with reference to recreational preferences which point to the background and causes of selection of these social groups.

Changes taking place in the process of production and transformation of goods lead towards eliminating from man's work those structures which are based on physical activity, and physical efforts affecting man's motor system. The remaining motor system constituents weight other systems down, creating a one-sided and monotonous effort. Work hypertrophy formed due to these processes also affects some parts of the body causing disruption of its balance [5]. Civilizational development leads to a faster relief and replacement of the physical effort with the work of machines. According to specialists, there is a considerable need to program targeted physical activities combined with recreational and rehabilitation activities. In this situation it seems quite urgent to find and properly use one's leisure time in order to restore his or her biological powers. Unfortunately, declarations in the matter of physical activity are nearly as universal as avoidance of physical activity in practice. Therefore, social awareness of the significance of physical activity is of great value [8]. We are functioning in a quality-changing reality which produces new standards of economic and family life, changes in the work organization, and, first of all, a brand new awareness. Raising the level of social consciousness brings about care for one's own health and life quality, which constitutes a consumption model with its core consisting of active forms of rest. Recreation, which is the substance of leisure time, becomes a field of human activity with a very specific meaning.

Today, the term recreation is used by specialists to denote one of the three concepts below:

Recreation may include different activities undertaken during leisure time. The scope of those activities may be as wide as the quantity of human needs and interests. “It is not the type of activities which determines the recreational activity, but the psycho-social context generating questions such as: Are these activities freewill activities? Do they bring satisfaction and fulfill expectations and interests? What are the motives of undertaking such activities? Do they have a positive influence on personality development?” [21]. There is no definitive list of recreation activities, but merely characteristics (freewill, pleasure, lack of economic motivation, fun, and play) indicating which human activities and patterns of behavior may be considered recreational [19]. Recreational activity is strictly connected with the sphere of leisure time. The above relationship shows that leisure time is an essential condition to practice recreation, and recreation activity – understood as a subject – may be only undertaken during leisure time. In the most classic interpretation of the term, leisure time is the time an individual has at his disposal after having fulfilled all his family, work and social duties, and is dedicated to rest, fun, and personality development. [6]. This sphere of social life is currently undergoing dynamic and significant changes in Poland.

Over the recent years the following changes in the sphere of leisure time and recreation have been observed in Poland:

Rejection of mass and organized forms of spending free time in favor of individualized leisure pursuits

Common recreation becomes an important factor integrating family and small groups of friends or relatives. Participants in recreation parties demand an interesting offer and level of services. They do not always use the services of specialized recreation centers or travel agencies, but also organize different forms of recreation themselves.

Besides, due to the disappearance of mass forms of recreation, organized for example by companies in their own holiday facilities, possibilities of contact between different social groups have diminished.

Mixing of and creating flexible boundaries between leisure and work time

This concerns mainly creative, free professions, characterized by flexible work hours, and organization and management of other people's work. As sociologist A. Siciński observes, the category of leisure time is characteristic of industrial society. We have, however, entered the postindustrial phase of social development – the information society. An increasing number of people are working in the service sector where the boundaries between work and leisure time are purely conventional [15]. The deve-lopment of the service sector, including the tourism and recreation branch, is one of the most visible changes taking place over the last decade in Poland, which is compatible with the global tendency. “In the new production scheme (…) services and their constant upgrading are extremely important” [16].

Leisure time as an indicator of social level and life quality

According to sociologist E. Tarkowska, formerly, the higher place one occupied in the income and educational hierarchy, the more leisure time he or she had. Nowadays, it is the other way around. On the top of social ranks are people who experience a constant shortage of leisure time. This concerns especially two groups: workaholics, for whom work is the source of satisfaction, the only form of expression, and the main factor of self-realization; and public sector employees such as doctors, teachers, and academic instructors, whose low income forces them to undertake extra jobs. Both groups lack leisure time, family life, or upgrading of their qualifications. Even though these people experience a serious deficit of leisure time, they try to spend the tiniest amounts of their free time in an active and healthy way. An insufficient amount of leisure time is often a reason for improvement of its quality. These people come from the emerging Polish middle class whose strength is knowledge and, thus, awareness of their own leisure and physical condition [14].

A fashion for the healthy, sporty body, promoted by modern culture

In modern times people are more often perceived from the standpoint of the physical quality of their bodies. “In modern culture identity is gradually transferred from what we traditionally call mind or soul to the surface. It is defined by the bodily qualities” [12].

Media are promoting the image of a perfect figure, shape, and body weight. By propagating the model of a healthy, sporty person they are forming certain common standards and expectations. This is strengthened by a stereotypical attribution of such positive characteristics as high competencies, success, health and effective control of one's own life to ...slim people. On the other hand, overweight people are seen as ugly, less competitive, ill, with no control over their lives. Media are creating a gap between our own bodies and the ideal one. Obesity (which is due to lack of activity) is perceived as an indicator of one's social discontent. The physical differences (obesity – overweight – slimness – super slimness – anorexia) are used as classification criteria of people.

The body and recreational activity are for some autotelic values, and for others necessary means to achieve a goal, which can be keeping a job, getting a better one, or upgrading one's own value. Today, we must decide whether the concept of active lifestyle is a fashion, choice, or necessity of modern man.

The research conducted by the Society for Human Research and Management in Virginia, USA, confirms that an average employer would be more willing to sign a job contract with a 40-year-old looking 10 years younger, than with his peer looking up to his age. Besides, a person looking younger and healthier is bound to get a much faster promotion, and is treated better by the employers and management.

Body training is often assumed to be equal with personality training. A man of success is strong, sporty, and constitutes a symbol of high social status.

An expanding range of recreation forms

This range is conditioned on the one hand by economic transformations and constant evolution of the service sector in Poland, and on the other hand by lifestyle changes and growing expectations of the Poles. The media are setting various cultural standards, including those of spending leisure time. They try to impose certain ways of organization of leisure time. The pervasion of global trends, which brings changes to the established customs, has also a huge influence on the range of recreational activities.

The choice of physical recreation forms (golf, sailing, windsurfing, extreme sports) becomes a demonstration of belonging to a selected social group, or a way of enhancing one's prestige.

Research shows that the Polish new middle class chooses active holidays – mainly skiing, tennis, and water sports. The environment of Polish entrepreneurs is characterized by great care about creating their own image, and their chosen way of spending leisure time becomes an important part of this image.

According to sociologists, at present only 7% of Polish citizens declare a fairly regular practice of various recreation forms. Both the composition of this group and the range of these forms are elitist. These people declare a general lack of leisure time (due to extensive workload), but at the same time they use every bit of it. They affirm a healthy lifestyle by active recreation, and take care of their physical fitness. This group consists of executives, company owners, and students, i.e. representatives of the new middle class [8].

The above has been confirmed by the World Health Organization, which points to the fact that the Poles are the least active nation in Europe. Only 7% of the Poles exercise regularly a few times a week. This is much lower than in Germany (21.8%), Spain (23.7%), Finland (30%) or Hungary (12%). As many as three fourths of Poles do not practice any sport at all. An average Pole engages in a recreational activity (e.g. cycling or hiking) only a few times a year [20].

On the basis of research of behavior patterns of the academic youth in their leisure time we can observe the following trends:

The formation of Polish middle class is a long, ongoing process, still far away from being completed. The formation of new social elites still remains in the initial stage due to the fact that nearly all cultural, family, and property connections from before WWII were destroyed. Under communist rule the so-called private initiative was adapted to free market competition to a very small extent, and it became part of the emerging middle class. At present, the most formidable group pretending to the middle class status is the intelligentsia, next to representatives of the former government spheres, self-made men, modern experts, and the nouveau riche capitalist class [18]. They are characterized by a great awareness of their needs and eagerness to exert an influence on their own lives. From this group mainly come the “mature” and the “conquerors” – two out of six psychographic types of Poles, willing to rest and travel [11]. Going on holiday, as a way of stress reduction, is an important constituent of a pro-healthy life style, however its realization must by combined with the awareness and appropriate level of income. According to 42% of Poles, Polish society is too poor to fully exercise a pro-healthy life style. On the basis of Domański's study on the elements of life style of different social classes in modern Poland, it can be concluded that recreational sport practice has become an indicator of social position, and even a part of a characteristic social policy of company loyalty, e.g. sabbaticals for employees of newly created companies, based on Western patterns [4].

It seems that the Polish youth and educated adults display many things in common: education, ambition, knowledge, and awareness. The fact is that it is the academic youth, which will replace the latter in the future. There is however an important difference which refers to the motivation and objectives of undertaking physical activity during leisure time. Young people in Poland raised in the time of political transformations, with access to Western cultural patterns, treat physical recreation primarily as pleasure, just like their western counterparts. Culture is no longer recognized as a field of creation and cultivation of values, but has been downgraded to its mere entertainment function. Culture is also a common experiment – a meeting of a group sharing the same values. The autotelic objective - the activity itself - makes it possible to achieve one's satisfaction. The executive class, on the other hand, regards physical recreation as a way of improving or maintaining their physical condition, but also as one of the forms of fighting stress in work and daily life.

A lifestyle is a manifestation of the choice of patterns of everyday actions from the range of possible behavior patterns in one’s culture. It is a certain life strategy, which is inherently linked to social status. It is thought that the need of physical activity is biologically generated, whereas the form of its realization is environmentally conditioned. If our temper and somatic build indicate a need for a great amount of mobility, then our selection of recreation form will not only depend upon our possibilities (recreational facilities, financial conditions), but also on our habits [8].

Regardless of the objective, patterns of recreational behavior must present values to man on three levels:

Cultural – as commonly accepted, desirable, and binding elements of the symbolic system of society;

Social – as institutionalized by particular social groups;

Individual–psychological - as internalized by an individual, or being subject to individual orientation [13].

One of the most common characteristics of modern times is consumption stimulated by the market, and vastly promoted by the media. It is becoming the supreme medium of social regulation, power, identity formation, and social structure [17].

Living in a consumer society we are recognized, evaluated, praised, or reprimanded according to the ruling social standards. Society is deciding about how we are perceived - as individuals or serial people. This is closely linked to the conscious or unconscious subordination of life strategies to suit the majority or strengthen our individuality [1]. The most important is, however, the sense of personal comfort – an assurance of life quality consisting of a variety of elements

Quality is a complex term. “There is no definition of quality. Quality is a feeling that something is better from something else. The definition of quality changes throughout life, from one generation to another. It changes depending on a given aspect of human activity” [3].

Social scientists are trying to find some fundamental characteristics, on the basis of which we are able to talk about life quality.

For philosophers, the quality of life is a set of conditions necessary for creation of authentic existence, the feeling of one's value and uniqueness of one's personality.

Sociologists, on the other hand, are mainly interested in determinants of life quality such as social norms, systems of values, and rules of social life.

From the standpoint of pedagogy, life quality refers to a hierarchy of values, aims, life aspirations of individuals or social groups at different ages. In the psychological sense, life quality is a feeling of satisfaction (wellbeing) and happiness. Life quality concerns the mental sphere. It fulfills existential needs (having), needs of one's security (being), and of social contact (liking). It is, therefore, a sum of daily life manifestations, which makes life satisfactory and joyful. Life quality means a feeling of satisfaction of individuals or social groups, deriving from the awareness of emotional fulfillment, social self-realization, and accomplishment of a complete individual and social development [2].

For economists, life quality may have an objective character, reflecting the basic features of social reality. Economists come up with measurable indices of life quality, adopting the reference point of the so-called goods and services basket. In this sense, material, cultural, and social conditions of social life are scrutinized. They include work conditions, income level, consumption structure, durable goods, amount of leisure time, and social and natural environment. This approach can be subjective, and then life quality would include an assessment of the fulfillment level of needs of an individual. It is the level of satisfaction, which a given person acquires from consumption of goods or services, or from participation in some activity. The former allows an estimation of the level of life, because it relies on the estimation of objective conditions (quantity and value); the latter makes it possible to estimate the quality of life, concerning subjective factors used for estimation of the level of man's satisfaction from the fulfillment of his various needs.

Thus, life quality combines objective (economic, accommodation, environmental, health, etc.), and subjective conditions (individual evaluation of life conditions in the categories of satisfaction, happiness, hope, etc.) [10].

The subjective elements of life quality are quite numerous, because for every man there can be a different set of values, conditioned by his own self. On the other hand, our subjective feelings depend to a great extent on the outer world, which has both a direct and indirect influence on us. We are able to control some of these influences, once we have realized that they are the expenses of social life and, in consequence, consciously accepted them. The remaining ones (we do not know how important they are) are adopted by us and internationalized in the process of socialization. Recreation seems to be a great example of such human activities. The way and type of rest preferred, expected, and finally realized by us in a specific way, influences the life quality in both subjective and objective categories. Our everyday life is determined by many conditions and norms, as well as by our inability to choose the people we meet, work, and whose services we use.

On the basis of the above conclusion we may clearly state that recreation is an area in which many values important for society may be observed. The realization of these values allows us to freely choose the forms and ways of behavior, without the necessity of strict adjustment to social norms. Recreation (especially physical, but not only) is one of the factors in creating and shaping life quality in Poland.

The subjective factors which exert an influence on the sense of life quality, and derive from practicing recreation, include good mood, possibility of choice, acceptance of undertaken activities, satisfaction, happiness – but first of all – complete freedom in choosing people we surround ourselves with. In modern times, spatial closeness does not have to condition emotional closeness.

One of the objective factors is our better, more attractive, and healthy image – our ally in the difficult and challenging job market and in private relationships. Another, quite obvious factor is maintaining and improving our health condition due to systematical recreation. This concerns physical fitness as well as many other aspects of our physical and mental health. Health is then translated into our own value, a higher self-esteem, and an objective chance for the new choices ahead.

The aforementioned subjective and objective factors are not entirely dichotomous – just like human nature is not. There is no clear division between the environmental and personality elements. One aspect remains, however, irrefutable: thanks to recreation these factors are valid constituents of the sense of life quality.

[1] Bauman, Z., O pożytkach z wątpliwości (On the benefits of doubts), Warszawa 2003.

[2] Berdes, C., Zych, A., Subiektywna jakość życia starzejących się Polaków, polskich imigrantów i przedstawicieli polonii amerykańskiej. (Subjective quality of life of elderly Poles, Polish immigrants, and Polish Americans) (in:) Demograficzne i indywidualne starzenie się (Demographic and individual aging), Zych, A., ed., Wydawnictwo Akademii Świętokrzyskiej, Kielce 2001.

[3] Dobys, L., Crawford-Mason, C., Quality or Else: The Revolution in the world of business, Houghton Mifflin, Boston 1991, p. 21.

[4] Domański, H., Hierarchie i bariery społeczne w latach dziewięćdziesiątych (Social hierarchies and barriers of the 1950s), Instytut Spraw Publicznych, Warszawa 2000.

[5] Drozdowski, Z., Studia ewolucji ludzkiej aktywności ruchowej (The study of human physical activity evolution), Monografie AWF Poznań, 1999.

[6] Dumazedier, J., Vers une civilisation du loisir? (Against the civilization of leisure time), Paris 1962.

[7] Hołderna-Mielcarek, B., Niezgoda, A., Trendy spędzania czasu wolnego młodzieży akademickiej. (The trends of spending leisure time of the academic youth) (in:) Gospodarka turystyczna w XXI wieku – stan obecny i perspektywy rozwoju. (Tourist economy in the 21^st century: the current state and prospects of evolution), S. Bosiacki, ed., AWF Poznań 2002.

[8] Kiełbasiewicz-Drozdowska, I., Osobowościowe i społeczne uwarunkowania rekreacji. (Personal and social conditioning of recreation) (in:) Teoria i metodyka rekreacji, (Theory and methodology of recreation), I. Kiełbasiewicz-Drozdowska, W. Siwiński, eds., AWF Poznań 2001.

[9] Kiełbasiewicz-Drozdowska, I., Wychowanie do rekreacji jako niezbędny element przygotowania do nowego stylu życia. (Raising for recreation as an indispensable element of preparation for a new life style), (in:) W. Siwiński, ed., Sport, rekreacja ruchowa, turystyka, (Sport, physical recreation, tourism), Poznań 1996.

[10] Łańcucki, J., (red.), Podstawy kompleksowego zarządzania jakością TQM (The basics of complex quality management), Akademia Ekonomiczna Poznań 2001.

[11] Majchrzak, K., Analiza zachowań konsumentów na polskim rynku turystycznym (The analysis of consumer behavior in the Polish tourist market) (in:) S. Bosiacki, ed., Gospodarka turystyczna w XXI wieku – stan obecny i perspektywy rozwoju, (Tourist economy in the 21^st century – present state and prospects of evolution), AWF, Poznań 2002.

[12] Melosik, Z., Tożsamość, ciało, władza. (Identity, body, power), UAM Poznań – Toruń 1996, p. 72.

[13] Misztal, M., System wartości a społeczne stratyfikacje. (Value system and social stratification), “Studia socjologiczne” (“Social studies”), 1984, 4.

[14] Mokrzycki, E., Nowa klasa średnia? (New middle class?), „Studia Socjologiczne” (“Social studies”), 1994, 1.

[15] Pęczak, M., Czas wolny zajęty (Free time engaged), “Polityka” 1997, 52.

[16] Rifkin, J., Wiek dostępu. Nowa kultura hiperkapitalizmu, w której płaci się za każdą chwilę życia (The Age of Access. A new culture of hypercapitalism, in which you pay for every moment of life), Wrocław 2003, p. 94.

[17] Szkudlarek, T., Media. Szkic z filozofii i pedagogiki dystansu (Media. An outline of philosophy and pedagogy of distance), Kraków 1999.

[18] Węcławski, G., Przestrzeń i społeczeństwo współczesnej Polski (Space and society of modern Poland), PWN, Warszawa, 2002.

[19] Winiarski, R., Psychospołeczne aspekty rekreacji ruchowej (Psycho-social aspects of physical recreation) (in:) H. Piotrowska, Sport dla wszystkich. Rekreacja dla każdego. (Sport for all. Recreation for everyone), Warszawa 1995.

[20] Wojtasiński, Z., Chodźcie z nami (Come with us), “Wprost”, 2002, 36,

[21] Wolańska, T., Leksykon. Sport dla wszystkich – rekreacja ruchowa. (Sport for all – physical recreation), Warszawa 1997.

Olympic and Sport Education (O.S.E.) is a subject applied in many countries of the world (the first systematic experimental application and evaluation of O.S.E. programs in Greece was carried out during the academic year of 1998-1999), either within the framework of physical education, or as an independent course. In order to improve this sort of education, it is necessary to evaluate its effectiveness, which constitutes the aim of this paper. For that purpose, the significance of evaluation in educational practice and in the O.S.E. programs is examined. Then, the aims and objectives of O.S.E. evaluation are defined. Finally, the most appropriate models for this evaluation are suggested.

The evaluation in education has been developed almost simultaneously along with the introduction of the educational systems. Initially, its focus was only on pupils, and evaluation was carried out only at school with the aim to measure the degree of assimilation and comprehension of the knowledge provided to them. Another concern to the pedagogues was the evaluation of teachers. Scholarly and professional standards, as well as their conscientiousness, became the elements under evaluation.

In our days the discussion focuses on the evaluation of educational work, which comprises a simultaneous assessment of all factors^{[ 4]}, i.e. pupils, teachers, educational methods and practices, educational materials and other, which determine the educational result in specific time and place, either during the educational process or at the end of it. Deductively, evaluation of educational work is defined as an evaluation process of the quality of the education provided, and the degree of implementation of its aims and objectives.

Beside strictly educational reasons that have led to the development of evaluation in education, there are also financial motives. The financial resources invested in education – either in the form of state direct funding, or in the form of man/hours spent by the students in the process of education – are considerable. Evaluation is also significant since the results of the educational process have a direct impact on the total development of a particular country through creation of trained and educated human resources.

Numerous forms and kinds of educational evaluation include: total evaluation, where many factors are examined simultaneously; partial evaluation, where only one factor is analyzed; preliminary evaluation, which is conducted before the start of a certain program in order to proceed to evaluation of different variables related to the progress of that program; intermediate or formative evaluation, which takes place during the implementation of an educational program. It detects the program’s weak points and selects the appropriate corrective intervention; resultative evaluation, aiming to evaluate the educational effort; and finally field evaluation, attempting to assess the usefulness and effectiveness of an educational program. Evaluation may be also carried out by an internal or external evaluator. Let us examine the necessity for evaluation of the O.S.E programs.

Prior to the analysis of this necessity, it is essential to refer to the conceptual context of O.S.E. The term is rather not widely accepted, as different perceptions of its conceptual context exist [9]. However, researchers seem to converge to the view that it relates to an educational process aimed at shaping attitudes, dispositions, orientations and ways of consciousness and moral action, compatible with the values of Olympism. Yet, it does not constitute a recognized type of education, at least not in its widest sense [2].

Muller [12] notices that O.S.E. contains three basic educational goals: harmonious education of man as a whole, promotion of fair play, and advancement of peace. The Olympic and Sport Education Guidefor Teachers, which was published by the Institute of Olympic and Athletic Education [10] is divided into the three basic chapters: information \ knowledge, moral and social aspects, and activities. In each chapter the didactic objectives, teaching strategies and evaluation of the outcome for the facilitation of educational work are outlined. In his book The good and fair play, Prof. Mouratidis [11] encourages promotion of fair-play to children. The International Manual of Olympic Education Be a champion for life! [3], published by the Institute of Olympic and Sport Εducation, with contributions by many Greek and foreign university professors and specialists in education, defines the following as the educational goals of the O.S.E. programs for children aged 9-13:

From the above it is evident that O.S.E. programs do not refer to educational programs related to acquisition of knowledge and competencies, but to programs related to shaping dispositions, orientations, and ways of consciousness and practice [4]. Yet, although the educational research and evaluation related to knowledge and competencies has been largely developed in the long term, respective research and evaluation of methods and practices promoting the development of character, moral evolution, dispositions and orientations, have not expanded equally.

The assessment of educational quality and the degree of implementation of educational aims and objectives can be regarded as the purpose of the O.S.E. evaluation. However, the definition of its goals is quite difficult. Although it is possible, having defined precisely the objectives of the O.S.E. programs, to define evaluation goals as assessment of their implementation, this view is problematic due to vague and rather not measurable educational objectives. For instance, how can we evaluate the accomplishment of the objective of fair-play promotion, when we do not know whether the observed behavior – compatible or not with the fair-play principle – is manifested in all situations, i.e. is it permanent behavior? In other words, while it is possible to evaluate whether a child can reasonably recognize/enumerate/describe a single familiar subject, or adapt/use/choose psycho-kinetic dexterity, the same may not apply to attitude, dispositions, and orientations. This does not mean that the rationale and necessity for evaluation are revoked. On the contrary, in order to make the definition of evaluation objectives feasible, it is appropriate to consider the way in which dispositions, orientations as well as consciousness and moral practice in athletics are formulated.

At this point, it must be emphasized that each concept: behavior, mood, and moral action constitutes an analytical and interpretative tool within the bounds of a specific theoretical frame. In order to avoid confusion due to the use of various definitions of the same concepts the following approach can be adopted. According to Lumpkin's, et al. [8] theoretical model, the most important features of the O.S.E. programs are the following four processes: the child’s capability a) to know, b) to value, c) to decide, and d) to act in accordance with the principles of Olympism.

Shields & Bredmeier [15] modified the aforementioned model by establishing a theory of character development. According to them, the above processes of knowing, valuing, deciding and acting are influenced by context, personal competencies and ego processing, and are transformed into interpretation, judgment, decision and implementation, according to the following model of moral action (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Model of moral action

The above researchers also suggest that in order to activate these processes cha-racter must function on the basis of four virtues: compassion, fairness, sportpersonship and integrity (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Model of moral action

Shield and Bredmeier's model is especially helpful and productive in defining the evaluation objectives. First, the model underlines the fact that teaching moral and social behavior to children and adolescents is a compound process. Furthermore, any attempt of study and research of the objectives of this process is more of a qualitative, not quantitative analysis. For example, according to the model the creation of a moral atmosphere in the educational environment, so as to make moral judgments easier, cannot be evaluated quantitatively. On the other hand, the model clearly defines such evaluation features as:

a) creating cooperative activities in which children can develop a sense of common goals,

b) creating a moral environment at school, applicable to O.S.E. programs,

c) providing opportunities to children so that they may participate in the exercise of power within the context of educational process,

d) discussing and solving moral dilemmas,

e) providing autonomy to the children concerning their personal goals,

f) facilitating development of social competencies within activities requiring negotiating skills,

g) promoting and implementing the models in athletics.

On the basis of the above typology, the appropriate type and model of evaluation must be defined. In order to accomplish this, different types and models of evaluation should be examined. The first step is selection of a formative or resultative type of evaluation related to particular characteristics of the program under evaluation. Especially, since we are not experienced enough in the field of O.S.E. programs, their continuous improvement is necessary. As these programs are innovative, the educational activities offered by them are pioneering. Consequently, the focus is not so much on the question to what degree (how much) these activities contribute to the success of educational objectives, but rather on the way in which (how) these activities contribute to the success of educational objectives. Because of that, a formative evaluation is preferred to a resultative one, as the former is conducted during the application of an educational program with the aim to detect its weak points and choose appropriate corrective interventions.

The second step is selection of an evaluation model. With reference to this, an extensive range of choices can be inquired. The first model measures the aims and objectives of a program [6]. As the oldest one, this model has a basic aim to measure the relationship between the objective and the result of an educational program. Such models, however, are not considered to be adequate for innovative programs (like O.S.E programs), as the latter display a significant interest in researching the way the educational actions contribute to the objective’s successful implementation.

Another model is a model of total evaluation of decision application. The so-called C.I.P.P., (Context – Input – Process – Product) [1, 13, 17], is useful for planning a country's educational policy. This model is mostly used in training, but not in educational programs. That is why it can not be used in the evaluation of O.S.E. programs.

In the models of quality evaluation [13], the educational action is a compound process, in which the point is not only studying objectives and results, but also studying particular conditions which have led to them. In this case the evaluator is asked to research the entire educational context and describe a series of factors affecting it, e.g. teachers' attitude towards the program, expectations and attitudes of students, etc. These models are appropriate for evaluation of educational programs applied in small educational organizations, where characteristics of people, as well as the structure and function of the organizations are examined. For those reasons these evaluation models are not recommended for the O.S.E. programs, as the latter do not concern small educational organizations.

The responding models [5, 7, 15] are models in which the parties of the educational process (teachers, students, etc.) participate in the evaluation and decision-making processes. These models are mainly applied in evaluation of a school unit. They are not really appropriate for the evaluation of O.S.E. programs, which have a wider application.

According to the models of comparative evaluation [14] it is not necessary for the evaluator to know in advance the objectives of the program under evaluation, and even if he/she knows them it is not necessary to construct his/her evaluation of them. In order to record the obtained results using this method, the evaluator uses data available from similar programs. It is understood that such models are not applicable to O.S.E. programs due to absence of existing data.

Finally, many educationalists consider adoption of the case study model [18] as the most appropriate for the evaluation of innovative educational programs. This model is qualitative and interpretative, and it focuses on total evaluation. The evaluators' personal judgment and interpretation play an important role in this model. The evaluator’s judgment is based on knowledge of the program’s procedures and contribution of the intervening factors. This model meets the requirements of evaluation of O.S.E. programs, because of its qualitative and interpretative character.

In conclusion, the proposed model of evaluation of the O.S.E. programs should be of the formative type, directed towards interpretation of the entire educational process to which both the evaluators and educators contribute.

In this paper possibilities and conditions necessary for evaluation of the O.S.E. programs have been studied. Initially, the needs which led to the appearance of evaluation in education and especially in O.S.E. programs were examined by pinpointing the financial and pedagogical reasons. Then, the aims were identified, and the objectives of evaluation of the O.S.E. programs were enumerated. In conclusion it can be stated that the evaluation of O.S.E. programs should be based on a qualitative and interpretative analysis of the formative type, as well as on the case study evaluation model.

[1] Alkin, M.C., Evaluation Theory Development, “Evaluation Comment”, 1969, 2, pp. 45-56.

[2] Baskau,Η., Methods of Olympic Education, “Minutes of the 27th Session of the International Olympic Academy, Ancient Olympia”, 1987, pp.169-180.

[3] Binder, et al., Be a Champion in Life, Athens: Foundation of Olympic and Sport Education, 2000.

[4] Ghiossos, I., ed., Olympic and Sport Education, Propompos, Athens, 2000.

[5] Guba, E., Toward a Methodology of Naturalistic Inquiry in Educational Evaluation, Center for the Study of Evaluation, Univ. of California, Los Angeles 1978.

[6] Hammond, R.L., Evaluation at the Local Level, (in:) B. Worthen & J Sanders, eds., Educational Evaluation Theory and Practice, Ohio Q. Jones 1973.

[7] Hopkins, D., Evaluation for School Development, Oxford Open University Press 1989.

[8] Lumpkin, A., Stoll, S., Beller, J., Sport Ethics: Applications for Fair Play, McGraw-Hill, Boston 1999.

[9] Mastoras, I., The Introduction of the Olympic Education in Education (in:) I. Ghiossos, ed., Olympic and Sport Education, Propompos, Athens 2000.

[10] Mastoras, I., ed., Guide of Olympic and Sport Education for Educationalists, Foundation of Olympic and Sport Education, Athens 1998.

[11] Mouratidis, Ι., The good and fair play, Platon Press, Salonica, 1998.

[12] Muller, N.,The Olympism in the Educational Field: From the Global dimension to the Local dimension, “Minutes of the 39^th Session of the International Olympic Academy, Ancient Olympia”, 1999, pp. 130-145.

[13] Patton, M.Q., Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods (2^nd ed.), CA: Sage Press, New-burry Park 1990.

[14] Scriven, M., Evaluation as Discipline, “Studies Educ. Evaluation”, 1994, 20, pp. 37-49.

[15] Shields, D.L.L., Bredemeier, B.J.L., Character development and physical activity, Canada: Human Kinetics, 1995.

[16] Stake, R.E., Perspectives in curriculum education, Rand McNally, Chicago 1967.

[17] Stufflebeam, D.L., Evaluation in Education: Current Application. McCutcham, Berkeley, 1974.

[18] Walberg, H.J., Haertel, G.D., The International Encyclopedia of Evaluation, Pergamon Press, New York 1990.

The following study was an attempt to define if there was any effect of recreational exercise on maternal weight gain and fat deposition during pregnancy and on birth weight. Serial measurements of skin fold thickness and body fat and weight were obtained from 10 pregnant women (n = 10) involved in a regular exercise program throughout pregnancy, and from 10 women (n = 10) who denied participation in such a program for personal reasons. During the course of the study the subjects from both groups were on a balanced diet. The results showed effects of the exercise in some of the parameters, especially in those concerning the period between the 3^rd and the 10^th month. This means that the exercise significantly affected a return to the ‘normal’ pre-pregnancy body levels after delivery in the subjects from the exercise group.

Physical exercise has become an integral part of women's life styles. However, many women stop exercising during pregnancy because of concerns regarding the well being of the fetus. Although pregnancy is associated with several physiological changes, and response to exercise is different during pregnancy than before, physical exercise can be beneficial to a pregnant woman in the absence of obstetric or medical complications [13].

Normal pregnancy is accompanied by a highly variable increase in both body weight and subcutaneous fat deposition. Fat accretion and fluid volume expansion account for the majority of weight gains in the first half of normal pregnancy, whereas the embryonic growth and fluid retention are the main components of late pregnancy weight gain [3, 12, 19, 22].

Regular exercise in early and mid-pregnancy often improves many bothersome symptoms (fatigue, nausea), and enhances maternal adaptations and placental growth as well as functional capacity. The latter introduces an additional margin of safety, paving the way for the baby’s growth. Continuing regular exercise throughout late pregnancy maintains many aspects of maternal fitness. If the level of intensity is appropriate, it also limits maternal weight gain and fat deposition in the mother, and has many positive effects on the course and the outcome of labor [4].

Benefits of exercise have been hypothesized to include a sense of well being, shorter labor length, less difficulty with labor pain, and fewer obstetric interventions [23].

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (A.C.O.G) has recently modified its guidelines [1] for exercise in pregnancy, indicating that healthy women with no special risks can exercise longer and harder than it was first thought or recommended. An earlier A.C.O.G bulletin [2] had recommended that the heart rate be taken no higher than 144 beats per minute and for no longer than 15 minutes. In the new guidelines, these targets have been omitted, and it is stated that the pregnant woman should not exercise till exhaustion [23].

The aim of this research was to:

To study the hypothesis, serial measurements of body mass and skin fold thickness were obtained from normal pregnant women with generally active lifestyles, who also engaged in regular exercise at or above a basic conditioning level for the primary purpose of health and recreation.

Of the 20 women who enrolled (n = 20), 10 (n = 10) formed a team that exercised during pregnancy, thus called the exercise group. The other group, the control group, included 10 women (n = 10) being demographically similar subjects, who did not agree to take part in the exercise program because of concerns that exercise throughout pregnancy might have negative effects on the course and outcome of their pregnancy. At the beginning of the study, 15 women formed the exercise group, but it was later reduced because 5 (n = 5) of them dropped out for personal reasons. Written questionnaires on their health, age, morph metrics, complications and other characteristics were obtained from all the members of both groups (exercise and control).

The exercise protocol used in the exercise group included 2 sustained exercise sessions per week, each session of 75-95 minutes. Initially, the subjects started with a three-time-exercise regimen per week, as it had been suggested in literature, but a pilot survey showed that this timing was impossible to be implemented among the Greek population. The exercise program took place at the same place and daytime, with the same facilities for each woman, and each time under the supervision of a team of experienced staff and the gynecologist-obstetrician guidance.

The exercise protocol was specified by the staff and was the same for all the pregnant women. In every exercise regimen, the duration, set of exercises performed, the mode and repetitions of every exercise that each woman completed or omitted were taken down. It must be noted that the heart rates before and after the warm up stage, as well as before and after the treadmill walking, were monitored. According to the guidelines issued in 1994 by the American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (A.C.O.G) [1], the heart rate should not exceed 144 beats per minute. The exercise program started at the end of the 3^rd month of pregnancy ( 3 weeks) and was completed just a few days before labor for each pregnant woman. It must be noted that it was impossible for all the pregnant women to have been in the same state of pregnancy when they first entered the experiment.

The protocol of the study involved anthropometrical measurements of bodily characteristics (body weight and height), skin fold thickness, body circumferences, the percent of body fat, as well as controlling dietary habits, which were all taken by the end of each month. The measurement of the body weight was performed by way of electronic scales, early in the morning and always under the same conditions. The body circumference was measured at five sites: at mid arm, proximal and mid thigh, abdomen and the hips (with the adduction of legs) at a standing position. The height was measured with a height gauge.

The skin fold thickness (triceps, subscapular, sacroiliacs, abdominal, thigh, midaxillary, calf) was measured by the same person using a standard technique with the LAFAYETTE skin fold caliper. These skin folds, according to the references [3, 11, 14], were chosen because: they were the most reproducible; they emphasized changes in the three female sex-specific, presumably estrogen-sensitive, skin folds in the area of pelvic girdle and abdomen; they included those in which major changes had been reported during pregnancy; and they included those commonly used to assess subcutaneous fat distribution in active young women [3].

Furthermore, after the measurement of skin fold thickness, the body fat was measured directly by an electronic body fat analyzer (Omron type), using the electrode technique.

In order to check the dietary habits of each subject, they were individually asked to write down in a detailed way what they were eating and drinking on a 24-hour basis, for three days during the monitoring week at the end of each month, according to the data of Holland, et al. [17] and Trichopoulou [25]. A total of 3 days, that is any 2-week days plus 1 weekend day, were considered to be preferable for writing down a dietary habit, because of the changing rate of the diet at the weekends in comparison to the weekdays. The program after having processed the data yielded a fully detailed analysis of the amount of calories per day, as well as the amount of the nutrients of foods in grammars that the pregnant consumed. Since it was impossible for each woman to be offered a specific diet, each woman's diet was controlled in the following way: if a lack or overuse of a nutrient was traced, the pregnant was given the appropriate guidelines in order to restore her diet program back to the normal level, always in collaboration with the consultant doctor.

These measurements took place by the end of the 3^rd, 4^th, 5^th, 6^th, 7^th, 8^th and 9^th months of pregnancy, as well as, by the end of the month following labor. The mid-axillary skin fold was not measured in the 9^th month, because the skin was tense and technically difficult to be measured. During the week of measurements the pregnant women wrote down their diet.

The women from the exercise group (n = 10) were aged (± SD: 28.40 = 3.92 years) and weighed (62.65 w 9.19 kg) before pregnancy, according to their own claims. They were all generally active healthy women, with no former childbearing experience and without any previous abortions or miscarriages (Table 1).

The women from the control group (n = 10) were aged (29.40 = 1.78 years) and weighed (63.00 9.48 kg) before pregnancy, according to their own claims. They were all generally active healthy women, with no former childbearing experience and without any previous abortions or miscarriages (Table 1).

Table 1. Characteristics of the sample

In order to evaluate differences in fat and weight, as a function exercise an effect size analysis was implemented [10, 24]. Parametric analyses were not used because of the small size of the group. Using Cohen’s conventions of effect sizes, a medium effect size of .5 was selected as representing significant group differences. Small and large effects (i.e., 0.3 and 0.8) were considered inappropriate because they represented miniscule (often due to a random error) and large effects. The effect size analysis was calculated using formulae presented in [18, 24], in which the denominator was pooled within the group standard deviation. In order to evaluate the effect of exercise on birth weight we used the same method.

In order to estimate Iiiiiiiii (However, the results from the parametric one-way ANOVAs reached significant levels, consequently, the effect size would be significant as well).

Population characteristics by exercise status

All the subjects were Greeks in good general health. All had uncomplicated, singleton pregnancies. As a group, they were well-educated, at least high school graduates. On enrollment, the age of the overall study group was (mean ± SD: 28.90 n 3.01 years) and the height (1.57 0.0738 m). For all the subjects it was their first child-bearing experience. Exercisers and non-exercisers were about equally aged. The exercise group was slightly more non-smoking (90% vs. 70%) and had less alcoholic consumption during pregnancy in comparison with the control group (60% vs. 70%). Women who exercised during the same period in pregnancy (n = 10) weighed less before pregnancy than those who did not exercise (n = 10) (mean 62.65 = 9.19 kg vs. 63.00 9.48 kg). The same difference was observed in the total weight gain (mean 17.11 2.27 kg vs. 19.43 3.66 kg) (Table 1).

All the subjects consumed a balanced diet throughout the course of study.

Type and amount of exercise

After the first trimester of pregnancy, the women of the exercising group started an exercise program which included a warm-up stage (15-minute duration), exercises for the upper and the whole body, stretching, pelvic exercises (50-65 minutes) and walking on a treadmill (10 minutes). In order to control the intensity of the exercise, we used the Borg rating of perceived exertion (RPE) scale.

Mean birth weights by exercise status

All the subjects delivered healthy infants at term. Mean birth weights were not significantly different between the two groups {F(1,18) = 1,121) , p > 0,05 and e.s. < 0,5)} (Table 2).

Table 2. The results of one-way ANOVA analysis for birth weight of the infant between the exercise and control groups

Body fat

From all the variables that were measured in the study, some of them were affected significantly by exercise, in contrast to others. As this, the variables that were related to the months of pregnancy (3^rd – 9^th), hereafter referred to as “variables D” (Table 3), and others that were related to the months 3^rd – 10^th, as “variables DL” (Table 4). A single asterisk indicated the variables with effect size (e. s.) > .50 < .80, and a double asterisk those with effect size > 0. 80. As we can see from Table 3, the variables of triceps D, thigh D, calf D, Omron D, circumference of abdominal D, circumference of hips D and circumference of abdominal DL, were not substantially affected by exercise, as their effect size was < 0.50. The rest of them were more or less significantly affected by exercise.

Table 3. The mean changes SD of skin fold thickness, circumferences, % of body fat and total weight gain in the exercise and control groups during 3^rd – 9^th months of pregnancy

* Indicates medium effect size 0.50 (e.s > 0.50 < 0.80) [10], ** indicates effect size 0.80. Skinfolds: triceps, subscupular, midaxillary, suprailiac, abdominal, thigh, calf. Omron: % body fat Circumferences: middle of arm, proximal thigh, mid thigh, abdominal, hips.

Mean body fat

Figures 1-8 show the mean values of body fat presented as serial changes during pregnancy, referred to the exercise and the control groups. One can see from the figures that the values of the variables for the control group were higher in comparison to the exercise group, although the subjects of the two groups had the same anthropometrics characteristics. It is remarkable to notice that the variable’s route of changes during the 9^th –10^th months was higher in the exercise group than in the control group.

Table 4. The mean changes SD of skin folds thickness, circumferences, % of body fat and total weight gain in the exercise and control groups during 3^rd – 10^th months of pregnancy

* Indicates medium effect size 0.50 (e.s. > 0.50 < 0.80) [10], ** Indicates effect size 0.80. Skinfolds: triceps, subscupular, midaxillary, suprailiac, abdominal, thigh, calf. Omron: % body fat. Circumferences: middle of arm, proximal thigh, mid thigh, abdominal, hips.

Figure 1. Triceps skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 2. Subscapular skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 3. Midaxillary skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 4. Suprailiac skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 5. Abdominal skinfold (except for 9^th month of pregnancy)

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 6. Thigh skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 7. Calf skinfold

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Figure 8. Mean of body fat (%)

y-axis: mean values of body fat in mm, x-axis: months of pregnancy, black squares – control group, grey circles – exercise group

Our data showed that healthy, active women who continued a regular program of recreational exercise throughout pregnancy, gained less weight and deposited less subcutaneous fat in general, than women who did not take part in such a program.

In other studies, the Σ of 5-skinfolds (triceps, subscapular, suprailiac, abdominal, thigh) was used in order to evaluate the rate of subcutaneous fat deposition during pregnancy [3, 11, 22]. It was found that there was a significant decrease in the Σ of 5-site skin folds thickness in the entire study population in late pregnancy. It was concluded that it probably reflected the metabolic shift in the maternal organism to use more lipids for energy, which spares carbohydrate for fetal utilization [3, 15]. This is regulated by an increase in peripheral insulin resistance, which favors lipolysis and suppresses both lipogenesis and peripheral glucose uptake [3, 15, 20]. It was observed that exercise enhanced the late pregnancy reduction in 5-site skin fold thickness, which indicated that these metabolic effects might have been enhanced by regular exercise [3].

We have not been able to find anywhere in the references whether the same methods and monitoring sites as in our study were used in order to estimate body fat deposition, therefore we are not able to make any comparisons with other findings. However, there are some common methods and sites, which have been monitored by others, but not exactly in the same way.

Furthermore, there was not any safe and detailed exercise program with particular types of exercise, sets and repeats, which had been used and tested in order for the pregnant woman to take part in it. On the contrary, all the investigators who dealt with exercise in pregnancy, used as an exercise program the one in which the pregnant athlete was already engaged before the embryo formation [3, 16, 23]. What was going to be done with the non-athlete pregnant women?

This lack of data forced us to come up with a specific program that would be appropriate not only for athletes, but especially for pregnant non-athlete women who would like to be engaged in recreational exercise during pregnancy and before conception. The program was based on the gynecologist–obstetrician instruction provided by the A.C.O.G. It was first tested in a pilot survey, to check its applicability in the case of Greek women.

As far as the measurements of the birth weight of infants, Clapp et al. [3], found that mean birth weights were significantly (p < 0,01) lower in the exercise group (3290 47 g vs. 3630 64 g) in comparison with the control group. In contrast, Maureen C. Hatch et al. [16], concluded that women who were exercising during pregnancy tended to have higher birth weights than non-exercisers. A recent publication has stated the fact that the effect of exercise on fetal growth during pregnancy is controversial. According to it, some studies report lower birth weight in response to exercise [3, 5, 6], while others suggest that exercise during pregnancy can lead to an increase in birth weight [13, 16, 23]. Multiple studies have examined the impact of various exercise regimens on birth weight [7, 8, 21]. In our study we have found no significant differences concerning the birth weight between the exercise and the control groups.

We can conclude that the measurements discussed in this study showed that exercise during this phase of pregnancy reduced in some ways the maternal weight gain and fat deposition in the women who continued the exercise program during their pregnancy. The reduction rate of the pregnancy weight was faster for them in comparison to the subjects from the control group. However, it is recommended to repeat this study on more subjects. Another limitation in our study was the diet program. It would be perfect if someone could provide the pregnant women with the same diet program throughout, so the effect of the exercise would be clear and unaffected by dietary factors. Finally, the frequency of exercises should be at least 3 times per week, if possible. The recreational physical activity has so far become an integral part of daily life for many women abroad, but not for the Greek population, especially during pregnancy. We believe this is going to change in the future.

[1] American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists [ACOG]. Exercise during pregnancy and the postpartum period, Washington, DC, 1994.

[2] American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists [ACOG]. Exercise during pregnancy and the prenatal period, Washington, DC, 1985.

[3] Clapp, J.F., Little, K.D., Effect of recreational exercise on pregnancy weight gain and subcutaneous fat deposition, “Medicine Science of Sports Exercise”, 1995, 27, pp. 170-177.

[4] Clapp, J.F.III., Principles for exercise prescription (in:) J.F. Clapp III, ed., Exercising through your pregnancy, Champaign: Human Kinetics, 1998, pp. 125-152.

[5] Clapp, J.F., Dickstein, S., Endurance exercise and pregnancy outcome. “Medicine in Science of Sports Exercise”, 1984, 16, pp. 556-562.

[6] Clapp, J.F., Capeless, E.L., Neonatal morphometrics after endurance exercise during pregnancy, “American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecologists”, 1990, 163, pp. 1805-1811.

[7] Clapp, J. F., Exercise in pregnancy-good, bad or indifferent? (in:) R.V. Lee, W.Μ. Βarron, D.Β. Cotton and D. Coustan, eds., Current Obstetric Medicare, Mosby, Chicago1993, 3, pp. 24-28.

[8] Clapp, J.F., A clinical approach to exercise in pregnancy, “Clinics in Sports Medicine”, 1994, 13, pp. 443-458.

[9] Cohen, J., Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences, Academic Press, New York 1977.

[10] Cohen, J., A power primer, “Psychological Bulletin”, 1992, 112, pp. 155-159.

[11] Durnin, J.V.G.A., Energy requirements of pregnancy: an integration of the longitudinal data from five-country study, “Lancet”, 1987, 2, pp. 1131-1133.

[12] Duvecot, J.J., Cheriex, E.C., Pieters, F.A.A., et al., Early pregnancy changes in hemodynamics and volume homeostasis are consecutive adjustments triggered by a primary fall in systemic vascular tone, “American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecologists”, 1993, 169, pp. 1382-1392.

[13] Ezmerli, N.M., Exercise in pregnancy, “Obstetrics and Gynecologists”, 2000, 7, pp. 260-265.

[14] Forsum, Ε., Sadurskis, Α., Wαger, J., Estimation of body fat in healthy Swedish women during pregnancy and lactation, “American Journal of Clinical Nutrition”, 1989, 50, pp. 465-473.

[15] Fraser, R.Β., Carbohydrate metabolism (in:) F. Hytten and G. Chamberlain, eds., Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1991, pp. 204-212.

[16] Hatch, M.C, Xiao-Ou, S, McLean, D.E., et al. Maternal exercise during pregnancy, physical fitness, and fetal growth, “American Journal of Epidemiology”, 1993, 137, pp. 1105-1114.

[17] Holland, B., Welch, A.A., Unwin, I.D., Buss, D.H., Paul, A.A., Southgate, D.A.T. (in:) McCance and Widdowson’s the composition of foods, eds., Royal Society of Chemistry, Cambridge 1991.

[18] Howell, D., Fundamental statistics for the behavioral sciences (4th Edition). Duxbury, New York, 1999.

[19] Ηytten, F.E., Weight gain in pregnancy, (in:) F.E. Hytten and G. Chamberlain, eds., Clinical Physiology in Obstetrics, Blackwell Scientific, Oxford, 1991, pp. 173-203.

[20] Leibel, R.L., Edens, Ν.Κ., Fried, S.Κ., Physiologic basis for the control of body fat distribution in humans, “Annuall Review of Nutrition”, 1989, 9, pp. 417-443.

[21] Lockey, E.A., Tran, Z.V., Wells, C.L., et al., Effect of physical exercise on pregnancy outcomes: A meta-analytic review, “Medicine Science of Sports Exercise”, 1991, 23, pp. 1234-1239.

[22] Ρiρe, N.G.J., Smith, Τ., Halliday, D., Edmonds, C.J., Williams, C., Coltart, Τ.Μ., Changes in fat, fat-free mass and body water in human normal pregnancy, “British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecologists”, 1979, 86, pp. 929- 940.

[23] Schramm, W.F, Stockbauer, J.W. and Hoffman, H.J., Exercise, employment, other daily activities, and adverse pregnancy outcomes, “American Journal of Epidemiology”, 1996, 143, pp. 211-218.

[24] Sideridis, G. D., On establishing Non-significance, “Dyslexia”, 1999, 5, pp. 47-52.

[25] Τrichopoulou, Α., Πίνακες συνθέσεως τροφίμων και Ελληνικών φαγητών (Tables of compositions of foods and Greek foods). Τrichopoulou, ed., Athens, 1992.

Leptin is a protein produced by the adipose tissue. The secretion of leptin is induced by the body fat mass and insulin. It is believed that leptin plays an important role in energy balancing. The aim of our investigation was to evaluate plasma leptin concentrations in patients with simple obesity treated with 1300 kcal/day diet, and physical exercises during a 28-day stay in a sanatorium. The study was carried out in 13 boys aged 15 to 17 years. The concentrations of insulin and leptin, components of the body mass and the amount of maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂max) were measured at the beginning and at the end of the stay. Participants performed a physical exercise test on the cycling ergometer with the load of 70% VO₂max for 30 minutes, three times a week. The results show that the combination treatment induced a decrease in plasma leptin concentration, as well as a loss of weight and body fat.

Leptin (Gr. leptos – slim) is a peptide, 16.7 KDs in mass, produced by matured adipocytes. The discovery of the gene responsible for leptin synthesis by the adipose tissue allows a new possibility in the process of understanding energy metabolism and pathogenesis of obesity [6, 21]. Leptin is secreted to the blood circulation, and plasma concentration increases with elevation of body fat mass in the effect of filing lipids by adipocytes [4]. Adipocytes in hypertrophy produce more of these hormones.

The principal function of leptin is the transfer of information about total body adiposity to the central nervous system (CNS) [4, 15]. An appropriate high plasma leptin concentration protects metabolic changes caused by the increase in the amount of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) in chronic food deficit [18, 20]. It has been proven that leptin inhibits the secretion of the neuropeptide Y, one of the most effective stimulators of food intake. NPY increases the insulin and corticosteroides plasma concentration, and decreases thermogenesis and, most likely, the HGH level. Leptin inhibits the NPY secretion and in this way stimulates food intake. However, only the bioactive form of leptin is available for brain receptors, having an inhibitory effect on appetite by increasing energy expenditure.

The aim of our study was an evaluation of plasma insulin and leptin concentrations in the young with simple obesity treated with diet and physical activity during their stay in a sanatorium.

The approval for the investigation was granted by the parents and the Ethics Committee of the K. Marcinkowski University of Medical Sciences in Poznań. The research was conducted on 13 boys aged 13 to 18 (average 15.6 ± 1.54 years), who underwent body mass reduction during their rehabilitation in sanatorium. On the day after their arrival in the sanatorium, the subjects had their maximal amount of oxygen intake (VO₂max) measured using the Ästrand-Rhyming [1] normogram of the relationship between the heart rate and the load value used on the bicycle ergometer. Body content was measured using the Impedance Analyser (Akern, BIA-101, Florence, Italy). The next day blood was drawn from the ulnar vein in a fasting state. 90 minutes after consumption of a standard breakfast (a roll with butter and a cup of tea without sweetener) capillary blood was drawn from the fingertip. Following that, the boys performed an exercise on the bicycle ergometer with an intensity of 70% VO₂max, lasting 15 minutes. Samples of venous blood were analyzed for biochemical indices. The leptin concentrations were analyzed using the RIA-LEPTIN test made by Linco-Research, USA. Insulin concentration was measured with the RIA-INS test by the POLATOM Center of Isotope Research and Development in Świerk. Everyday, the boys performed the physical exercise on the bicycle ergometer for 30 minutes, with an intensity of 70% VO₂max, and participated in sports activities lasting about 2 hours (walking, swimming, badminton, team sports, etc.). Simultaneously, they were subjected to a diet restricted to 1300 kcal. The diet was composed of 19% protein, 26% fat and 55% carbohydrates (Table 1). A daily diet consisted of five meals. Each meal included fruit and vegetables.

Table 1.Average diet energy values including proteins, fat and carbohydrates content

After four weeks the body consistency of the subjects was again estimated, and the exercise test was carried out. The values of the same physiological and biochemical blood parameters as taken in the first term were established. The results were statistically analyzed using the Wilcoxon test.

Selected anthropometric and physiological parameters of the examined group in both terms of the study are shown in Table 2. The applied therapy induced a significant decrease in the mean body weight by 9.7 kg (p < 0.01), total body fat by 10.4 kg (p < 0.01), body mass index by 3.6 kg/m² (p < 0.01), waist circumference by 9.1cm (p < 0.01), circumference of hips by 5.5 cm (p < 0.01) and WHR by 0.04 (p < 0.05).

Table 3 presents a comparison of mean levels of the evaluated hormones. A significant decrease in the leptin concentration (from mean 18.73 ± 9.86 to 8.18 ± 4.52 ng/ml, p < 0.01) was found in the second term of the study. Immunoreactive insulin concentration was diminished from the mean 13.38 ± 11.30 to 9.40 ± 3.87 µIU/ml, but the change was not statistically significant.

Table 2.Average anthropometrics and physiological characteristics during both measurement periods

** p < 0,01

Table 3. Comparison average value concentration hormones in rest in I and II period of investigation

** p < 0,01

The mean values of body mass and its components have been improved in the boys in both terms, as well as maximal oxygen consumption and selected anthropometric features respectively (Table 2). The application of the low calorie diet on the level of 1300 cal, devoid of animal fats and simple carbohydrates, induced a significant decrease of body mass in the boys (9.68 ± 8.2 kg on average). We have also observed a reduction of body mass associated with the increase of energy expenditure due to the applied systematic physical effort. The decrease in body mass induced changes of body components. The reduction of body fat was significant (p < 0.01), and was probably a result of the increase in the free fat acid oxidation associated with lipolysis intensity. The physical exercise induces the lipase lipoprotein activity in the adipose tissue. These changes were most likely associated with an increase of insulin sensitivity in the adipose cells [13]. Due to the reduction of total body mass a decrease of body mass index (BMI) and waist-hip ratio (WHR) occurred. The decrease of the WHR factor was significant. A slight increase of VO₂max can be ascribed on the one hand to the physical training applied, and on the other hand to direct effects of the body mass reduction. Having compared the results of our investigation related to VO₂max with data cited in references, we can conclude that the capacity of our participants was lower than reported for people with correct body mass [10, 19]. The increase of load value during the ergometric test in the second term of our investigation confirms the upward tendency of effort tolerance, which indicates the benefit of the applied physical training.

Leptin concentration in obese people, both adults and adolescents, is higher than in people with correct body mass, and is associated with the weight-height index, percentage of fat consistence in body composition, age, and sex. Moreover, it is related to the stage of pubertal development in children and adolescents [1, 8, 11]. In our study the leptin concentration was 18.73 ± 9.86 ng/ml in the first term, and 8.18 ± 4.52 ng/ml in the second term. The complex therapy consisted of increased physical activity carried out with a restricted diet, which induced the reduction of leptin level more than 100 % within 4 weeks. The mechanism of reduction of leptin concentration by systematic physical training and restricted diet is still unknown. The result of the experimental study showed that reduction of leptin concentration might reflect a decrease in the body fat mass and disturbance in energy balance. Also the reduction of immunoreactive insulin concentration may play a very important role. In our study we did not reveal a significant decrease of insulin level between the first and second term (1^st term 13.38 ± 11.30 IU/ml, 2^nd term 9.40 ± 3.87 IU/ml) or any significant correlation. However, other authors suggest a positive correlation between the two hormones [5, 7, 9].

Saad et al. [17] found out that insulin infusions resulted in increased leptin concentrations. Mueller et al. [12] showed that insulin-mediated leptin secretion was closely related to glucose uptake by isolated adipocytes, and that blocking glucose uptake or metabolism inhibited insulin- mediated leptin secretion. The diet used by us practically limited the access of simple carbohydrates, and most probably this mechanism could have resulted in the decrease of leptin concentration. It is known that physical training increases insulin sensitivity [16], and it might be expected that this increased sensitivity would occur in the muscle rather than adipose tissue, resulting in a decreased metabolism of glucose in the adipose tissue. Other authors [7, 11] suggest that leptin concentration correlate with body mass and total fat mass. This is consistent with the theory that leptin is an adipostate, informing the body of total-body energy stores so that appropriate alterations in appetite, energy expenditure and nutrient partitioning can occur. It has been suggested that in humans leptin may regulate body fat by suppressing or increasing appetite, rather than by acting on energy expenditure. In patients on a low-calorie diet without extra physical effort, leptin concentration was reduced much more than the proportional change in the body fat content. Increased appetite, reduced thermogenesis and energy expenditure have also been observed, which can be a reason for difficulties in reducing the body mass solely by a restriction diet. In agreement with this hypothesis [2, 22] hyperleptynemia and leptin resistance remain the primary pathogenic factors in obesity. At this time we still cannot determine clearly the role of leptin in treatment and prevention of obesity.

[1] Apter, D., Leptin in puberty, “Clinical Endocrinology”, 1997, 47, pp. 175-176.

[2] Arch, J. R. S., Stock, M. J., Trayhurn, P., Leptin resistance in obese humans: does it exist and what does it mean? “International Journal of Obesity”, 1998, 22, pp. 899-905.

[3] Ästrand, P. O., Rhyming, I., A nomogram for calculation of aerobic capacity (physical fitness) from pulse rate during submaximal work, “Journal of Applied Physiology”, 1954, 7, p. 2.

[4] Baskin, D. G., Hahn, T. M., Schwartz, M. W., Leptin sensitive neurons in the hypothalamus, “Hormone Metabolism Research”, 1999, 31, pp. 345-350.

[5] Boden, G., Chen, X., Mozzoli, M., Ryan, I., Effect of fasting on serum leptin in human subjects, “Journal Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism”, 1996, 81, pp. 292-295.

[6] Caro, J. F., Sinha, M. K., Kolaczyński, J. W., Zhang, P. L., Considine, R. V., Leptin: the role of an obesity gene, “Diabetes”, 1996, 45, pp. 1455-1462.

[7] Cohen, B., Novick, D., Rubinstain, M., Modulation of insulin activities by leptin, “Science”,1996, 2, pp. 1185-1188.

[8] Considine, R. V., Sinha, M. K., Haiman, M. L., Serum immunoreactive leptin concentrations in normal weight and obese humans, “New England Journal of Medicine”, 1996, 334, pp. 292-295.

[9] Dagogo-Jack, S., Fenelli, C., Paramore, D., Brothers, J., Landt, M., Plasma leptin and insulin relationships in obese and non-obese human, “Diabetes”, 1996, 45, pp. 699-701.

[10] Kozłowski, S., Nazar, K., Wprowadzenie do fizjologii klinicznej, PZWL, Warszawa 1995.

[11] Lönnqvist, F., Wennlund, A., Arner, P., Relationship between circulating leptin and peripheral fat distribution in obese subject, “International Journal of Obesity”, 1997, 21, pp. 255-260.

[12] Mueller, W. M., Gregoire, F. M., Stanhope, K. L., Evidence that the glucose metabolism regulates leptin secretion from cultured rat adipocytes, “Endocrinology”, 1998, 139, pp. 551-558.

[13] Nazar, K., Kociuba-Uścilko, H., Aktywność ruchowa w leczeniu i zapobieganiu otyłości, “Polski Tygodnik Lekarski”, 1985, supl.1, pp. 68-69.

[14] Niskanen, L., Haffner, S., Karhunen, L. J., Turpeinen, A. K., Miettinen, H., Uuistupa, M. I. J., Serum leptin in relation to resting energy expenditure and fuel metabolism in obese subjects, ”International Journal of Obesity”, 1997, 21, pp. 309-313.

[15] Pelleymounter, M. A., Cullen, M. J., Baer, M. B., Effects of the obese gene product on body weight regulation in ob./ob. mice, “Science”, 1995, 269, pp. 540-545.

[16] Pilaczyńska-Szczęśniak, Ł., Wiązanie i degradacja ¹²⁵J-insuliny przez receptory erytrocytów pod wpływem wysiłku fizycznego u osób o zróżnicowanej wydolności i chorych na cukrzycę, Monografie AWF Poznań, 1995, 325.

[17] Saad, M.F., Khan, A., Sharma, A., Physiological insulinemia acutely modulates plasma leptin, “Diabetes”, 1998, 47, pp. 544-549.

[18] Stephens, T. W., Basinski, M., Bristow, P. K., The role of neuropeptide Y in the anti-obesity action of the obese gene product, “Nature”, 1995, 377, pp. 530-532.

[19] Tanaka, H., Fukumoto, S., Osaka, Y., Yamaguchi, H., Miyamoto, H., Distinctive effect of three different modes of exercise on oxygen uptake, heart rate and blood lactate and pyruvate, “International Journal of Sports Medicine”, 1991, 12, pp. 433-438.

[20] Tomaszuk, A., Simpson, C., Williams, G., Neuropeptide Y, the hypothalamus and the regulation of energy homeostasis, “Hormone Research”, 1996, 46, pp. 53-58.

[21] Zhang, Y., Proenca, R., Maffei, M., Barone, M., Leopold, L., Friedman, J. M., Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue, “Nature”, 1994, 372, pp. 425-431.

[22] Zimmet, P., Hodge, A., Nicolson, M., Serum leptin concentrations, obesity, and insulin resistance in Western Samoans: cross sectional study, “British Medical Journal”, 1997, 313, pp. 95-96.